r 


o 

§ « 

S3  S, 


si 

5- 


Automobiles 


A  Practical.  Treatise  on  the 

CONSTRUCTION,     OPERATION,     AND     CARE    OF     GASOLINE,     STEAM,     AND 
ELECTRIC    MOTOR-CARS,     INCLUDING    MECHANICAL    DETAILS    OF 
RUNNING  GEAR,    POWER    PLANT,     BODY,    AND    ACCES- 
SORIES,    INSTRUCTION     IN     DRIVING,     ETC. 


By  HUGO  DIEMER,  M.  E, 

Professor  of  Mechanical  Engineering 

The  Pennsylvania  State  College 

State  College,  Pa. 


ILLUSTRATED 


CHICAGO 

AMERICAN  SCHOOL  OF  CORRESPONDENCE 
1909 


utrtEKAL 


COPYRIGHT  1909  BY 
AMERICAN  SCHOOL  OF  CORRESPONDENCE 


Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London 
All  Rights  Reserved 


Foreword 


WITHIN  recent  years  the  self-propelled  vehicle  has  be- 
come so  important  a  factor  in  the  evolution  of  social 
and  business  life,  that  a  distinct  need  has  been 
created  for  a  comprehensive  but  concise  treatise,  written  in 
clear  and  simple  language,  which  shall  serve  as  a  practical 
working  guide  to  all  details  of  the  construction,  care,  and  suc- 
cessful operation  of  the  various  types  of  motor-cars.    It  is  the 
purpose  of  the  present  volume  to  fill  this  acknowledged  need. 

€L  The  application  of  the  internal-combustion  motor,  the  steam 
generator,  and  the  storage  battery  to  the  development  of  types 
of  mechanically  propelled  road-carriages  fitted  to  meet  all  the 
trying  conditions  of  the  use  to  which  such  vehicles  are  put,  is  a 
far-reaching  engineering  problem  of  great  difficulty.  While  not 
all  details  of  this  problem  have  as  yet  been  finally  worked  out 
or  reduced  to  standard  practice,  sufficient  progress  has  been 
made  to  assure  results  of  permanent  value.  In  so  far  as  these 
results  are  embodied  in  the  constructions  used  in  typical  mod- 
ern cars,  they  are  presented  in  these  pages  without  any  attempt 
at  refinement  of  engineering  subtleties,  but  with  all  explanation 
of  essential  details  of  construction  and  operation  needed  by 
those  who  drive  their  own  machines  or  who  wish  to  qualify  as 
practical  chauffeurs. 


179721 


C.  Special  stress  is  laid  on  the  practical  as  distinguished  from 
the  merely  theoretical  or  descriptive  form  of  treatment,  so  that 
the  work  will  be  found  especially  adapted  for  purposes  of  self- 
instruction.  It  is  designed  not  only  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  a  manual  of  practical  instruction  for  the  novice,  but  also  to 
serve  as  a  reference  work  replete  with  information  and  sugges- 
tions of  the  utmost  practical  value  to  the  most  experienced 
driver. 

C,  The  method  adopted  in  the  preparation  of  this  volume  is 
that  which  the  American  School  of  Correspondence  has  devel- 
oped and  employed  so  successfully  for  many  years.  It  is  not  an 
experiment,  but  has  stood  the  severest  of  all  tests  — that  of 
practical  use— which  has  demonstrated  it  to  be  the  best  method 
yet  devised  for  the  education  of  the  busy  workingman. 

C.  For  purposes  of  ready  reference  and  timely  information  so 
frequently  needed  in  automobile  operation,  it  is  believed  that 
this  volume  will  be  found  to  meet  every  requirement. 

HUGO  DIEMER. 


Table    of    Contents 


COMPONENT  PARTS  OF  A  MOTOR-CAR Page     1 

Running  Gear  (Wheels,  Tires,  Axles,  Springs,  Frame,  etc.) — Power  Plant 
(Engine,  Clutch,  Transmission,  etc.) — Body  (Wood,  Steel,  Aluminum)  — 
Motor  Suspension  (Three-Point,  Four-Point) — Springs  (Half-  and  Full- 
Elliptic) — Front  Axles  (Solid,  Tubular ) — Rear  Axles  (Live,  Dead,  Floating, 
etc.) — Steering  Yoke,  Neck,  and  Knuckle — Steering  Column  (Screw-and-Nut, 
Worm-and-Gear,  Worm-and-Sector) — Hand-Wheel 

POWER  PLANT  OF  A  GASOLINE  CAR        .       .       .       .       .       .    Page   17 

Gas-Engine  Cycle  (Admission,  Compression,  Ignition,  Exhaust) — Four-Cycle 
and  Two-Cycle  Engines — Piston  and  Valve  Action — Working  Parts  of  Engine 
— Single-  and  Multiple-Cylinder  Engines — Separately  Cast  Cylinders — Cylin- 
ders Cast  in  Pairs — Engine  Parts  (Cylinders,  Pistons,  Crank-Shaft,  Cams 
and  Cam-Shafts,  etc.) — Valve-Setting — Poor  Compression — Corrosion  in  Cyl- 
inders— Cooling  Systems  (Air,  Water) — Revolving-Cylinder  Motor — Water 
Jacket — Radiators  (Tubular,  Cellular) — Thermo-Siphon  Method  of  Circula- 
tion— Gaskets — Overheating  of  Engine  —  Air-Lock — Steaming  Radiators — 
Cold-Weather  Precautions — Anti-Freezing  Mixtures — Gasoline  System  (Tank, 
Piping,  etc.) — Sediment  and  Water  Receptacle — Gauge-Glasses — Grades  of 
Gasoline — Use  of  Kerosene — Carbureters — Gasoline  and  Air  Mixture — Auto- 
matic Regulation — Float-Feed  Carbureter — Compensating  Carbureter — Con- 
necting and  Adjusting  a  Carbureter — Dry-Cell  and  Jump-Spark  Ignition — 
Trembler  or  Vibrator — Spark-Coil  Adjustment — Spark-Timer  or  Commutator — 
Direct-Current  Shunt-Wound  Dynamo  Ignition- — Magneto  Ignition — Spark- 
Plugs — Make-and-Break  Ignition — Storage  Batteries  for  Ignition 

CONTROLLING  MECHANISM  AND  TRANSMISSION       .      -'.       v      .    Page   79 

Spark-Lever — Early  and  Late  Spark — Throttle-Lever — Pedals — Muffler  Cut- 
Out  and  Compression-Relief  Levers — Power  Transmission— ^Clutches  (Con- 
striction-Band, Cone,  Single-  and  Multiple-Disc)- — -Speed-Changing  Gears — 
Planetary  Gears — Sliding  Gears — Speed-Changing  and  Brake  Levers — Chang- 
ing Gears — Grinding  Gears — Running  on  High-Speed  Gear — -Transmission  or 
Drive  Mechanism  (Single-  and  Double-Chain,  Shaft,  Friction,  Cable) — Uni- 
versal Joints — Differentials  or  Balance  Gears 

CARE  AND  OPERATION  OF  MOTOR-CARS  .       .       .      -.      ;.       .    Page  106 

Lubrication — Hot  Boxes — Force-Feed  Lubricators — Brakes  (Ordinary  and 
Emergency) — Brake-Bands  (Internal  and  External) — Bearings  (Cylindrical, 
Roller,  Ball,  Annular) — Inspection  of  New  Car — Starting  Engine — Speed- 
Control—Loss  of  Power  —  Engine  Stopping  or  Knocking  —  Weak  Batteries — 
Back-Firing — Smoke — Skidding  —  Going  down  Hill  —  Inspection  on  Road — 
Cleaning  and  Washing — Care  of  Tires — Inflation — Weights  on  Tires — Remov- 
ing and  Replacing  Tires — Punctures — Electric  Vehicles — Care  of  Motor — 
Charging  and  Care  of  Batteries — Steam-Driven  Vehicles 

SELECTION  AND  CLASSIFICATION  OF  MOTOR-CARS      .-;.      *.      **.    Page  155 

Taking  Advice — Standing  of  Manufacturers  —  Price  —  Second-Hand  Cars — 
Demonstrations — Horse-Power  and  Weight — Easy  Riding — Accessibility  of 
Parts — Instruction  in  Driving  —  Range  of  Speed  —  Chauffeurs — Clothing — 
Top — Accessories  (Lights,  Dynamos,  Tools,  etc.) — Classification  (Passenger 
and  Commercial,  Light-  and  Heavy-Weight,  Runabout,  Coupe,  Touring  Car, 
Truck,  etc.) — Purposes  of  Various  Types 

INDEX V      .       .    Page  187 


OP  THE 

UNIVERSITY^; 
OF      ,    '  S 

s£A L  J  FO  R  B»  l£^    i       -  ' ' " ' 


AUTOMOBILES 


PART  I 


In  attempting  to  study  the  operation  and  function  of  the  various 
parts  constituting  the  automobile,  the  best  plan  is,  first,  to  analyze 
the  machine  into  its  distinct  groups  of  parts,  and  then  to  determine 
the  function  of  each  part  in  each  group. 

COMPONENT  PARTS  OF  A  MOTOR-CAR 

The  essential  parts  of  the  automobile  may  be  broadly  classified 
under  three  main  heads — namely: 

(a)     The  Running  Gear; 

(6)     The  Power  Plant; 

(c)     The  Body,  its  Accessories  and  Fittings. 

THE  RUNNING  GEAR 

The  running  gear  (Fig.  1)  consists  of:  Wheels  (A),  for  supporting 
and  propelling  the  whole  machine;  Tires  (E),  for  cushioning  the  car 
from  rough  shocks  and  jars,  and  for  providing  a  sufficient  adhesion 


Fig.  I.    Running  Gear  of  a  Motor-Car. 
A— Wheels;  B— Tires;  C—  Axles;  D— Springs;  E—  Frame. 

of  the  wheels  to  the  roadway  to  insure  the  friction  necessary  for  pro- 
pulsion when  the  wheels  are  rotated;  Axles  (C),  to  carry  the  wheels 
and  maintain  them  in  correct  relative  position;  Springs  (D),  to 
eliminate  more  completely  the  shocks  and  jars;  Frame  (E),  to  which 
all  the  above  parts  of  the  vehicle  are  attached  in  the  best  possible 


2  ^  U  ^  J  ..^TICMOBILES 


location,  such  frame  being  capable  of  sustaining  the  loads  to  be 
carried.  In  addition  to  the  above  features  shown  in  Fig.  1,  the 
running  gear  (see  Fig.  2)  includes  steering  devices  (controlled  by 
hand-wheel,  shown  at  upper  right),  for  altering  the  direction  of  move- 


Fig.  2.    Typical  Chassis  of  a  Motor-Car,  Showing  Running  Gear  and  Power  Plant. 
Nordyke  &  Marmon  Company,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

ment  of  the  vehicle;  equalizing  mechanism  or  differentials  (generally 
housed,  as  shown  at  center  of  rear  axle),  for  permitting  one  driving 
wheel  to  turn  faster  than  the  other  when  the  machine  is  turning  a 
curve;  change-speed  devices  (ordinarily  controlled  by  hand-lever, 
shown  between  front  and  rear  wheels  at  right),  for  altering  the  speed 


AUTOMOBILES 


of  the  vehicle  while  that  of  the  engine  may  be  left  unchanged;  and 
brakes  (ordinarily  operated  by  foot-levers,  shown  under  steering 

wheel),  for  bring- 
ing the  vehicle  to 
a  gradual  or  im- 
mediate stop. 

Power  Plant. 
The  power  plant, 
in  the  case  of  the 
gasoline-driven 

Pig.  4.    Wood  Body.  Car>  C0nsists  °f  the 

Engine, Fly-Wheel, 

Carbureter,  Clutch,  Transmission,  and  Water-Pump,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  3.  In  addition  to  these  parts,  the  power  plant  of  the  gasoline- 
driven  car  includes:  Batteries,  .  Spark-Coils,  Spark-Plugs,  Oiling 


Fig.  5.    Component  Parts  of  an  Aluminum  Body. 
Nordyke  &  Marmon  Company,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Devices,  and  other  features  discussed  in  detail  as  to  their  operation 
under  subsequent  headings.  The  power  plants  of  steam-driven  and 
electrically  driven  cars  are  also  (described  in  detail  in  chapters  de- 
voted to  these  types. 


AUTOMOBILES 


Body.  The  body  may  be  either  of  wood,  of  pressed  steel,  or  of 
cast  aluminum.  The  various  styles  of  bodies  are  classified  and  de- 
scribed later. 

As  to  materials,  solid  wood  or  veneered  wood  bodies  (Fig.  4) 
are  both  liable  to  cracking  and  warping,  due  to  exposure  to  the 
weather.  The  pressed-steel  body  is  liable  to  dents.  Aluminum 
bodies  (Fig.  5)  are  usually  cast  in  separate  pieces,  and  finished  with 
wood  seats.  Taken  all  in  all,  the  cast  aluminum  body  is  best.  It  is 
not  usually  furnished,  however,  in  the  cheaper  types  of  car  at  present. 


Fig.  6.    Pressed-Steel  Frame,  with  Pressed  -Steel  Motor  and  Gear  Case  Support 

which  Acts  as  Bracing  at  Weakest  Part  of  Frame. 
Corbin  Motor  Vehicle  Corporation,  New  Britain,  Conn. 

The  Frame.  Pressed  steel  is  to-day  practically  the  univer3al 
material  for  automobile  frames.  The  name  "pressed  steel"  arises 
from  the  fact  that  the  steel  is  cut  from  sheets  which  are  placed  be- 
tween dies  and  forced  into  shape  by  heavy  presses.  This  pressing 
is  always  done  while  the  steel  is  cold,  since,  if  the  metal  were  heated, 
it  could  not  be  maintained  at  a  uniform  temperature  in  the  presses, 
and  would  warp.  Moreover,  the  scale  would  have  to  be  removed 
for  the  sake  of  good  appearance  of  the  frame. 

Fig.  6  shows  a  pressed-steel  frame  as  constructed  by  the  Corbin 
Motor  Vehicle  Corporation,  New  Britain,  Conn.  A  feature  of  this 
frame  is  the  formed  sheet-metal  pan,  of  heavy  gauge,  which  is  riveted 
to  the  side  and  cross-members  of  the  frame  proper,  and  to  which  the 
flanged  motor  and  gear  cases  are  bolted.  This  construction  makes 
the  front  part  of  the  frame  practically  an  I-beam  section  laid  flat,  and 


6 


AUTOMOBILES 


largely  eliminates  the  tendency  to  sag  or  settle.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered, from  the  very  fact  that  the  frame  material  is  ductile  enough 
to  have  permitted  of  its  being  pressed  cold  without  cracking,  that  in 
the  very  nature  of  things  it  can  have  no  real  springiness,  and  re- 
peated shocks  and  bounces  will  cause  it  gradually  to  settle.  This 
settling  will  occur  at  the  weakest  part  of  the  frame,  and  is  usually  not 


-If? 


J 


«  o     a     <> 


i 


Fig.  7.    Side  Bar  of  Frame,  Showing  Excessive  Riveting. 

over  one-eighth  of  an  inch — hardly  enough  to  be  noticed  with  the 
eye;  but  it  is  enough  to  affect  any  'mechanism  that  depends  on  the 
frame  to  maintain  perfect  alignment  of  parts.  Troubles  with 
bearings  in  engines  and  transmissions  can  often  be  traced  to  this 
source. 

Theoretically  the  best  material  to  resist  this  sagging   tendency 
is  steel,  wood-filled.     The  trouble  with  wood  filling,  however,   is 


Fig.  8.    Frame  Weakened  by  Excessive  Riveting  in  Parts  Subjected  to 
Heaviest  Weight. 

that  hot  riveting  cannot  be  done,  and  cold  riveting  is  likely  to  split 
the  pressed-steel  frame;  so,  in  actual  practice,  the  wood-filled  frame 
has  almost  disappeared. 

Fig.  7  shows  a  side  bar  of  a  typical  four-cylinder  car,  in  which 
altogether  too  many  rivet-holes  have  been  punched  or  drilled. 

Fig.  8  shows  a  frame  construction  in  which  the  strain  tending 
to  produce  sagging  has  been  allowed  to  come  at  points  of  the  frame 


UNIVERSITY 


AUTOMOBILES 


which  have  already  been  weakened  by  rivet-holes.     Both  of  these  con- 
structions are  faulty,  and  should  be  avoided. 

Fig.  9  shows  a  type  of  motor  suspension  which  does  away  with 
the  drop  frame,  and  is  designed  for  a  minimum  number  of  rivet- 


Fig.  9.    Three-Point  Motor  Suspension. 
Stevens-Duryea  Company,  Chicopee  Falls,  Mass. 

holes.  The  motor  frame  is  suspended  at  points  1,  2,  and  3,  points 
1  and  2  being  side  lugs,  and  3  being  a  cross-bar.  This  type  of  sus- 
pension is  employed  by  the  Stevens-Duryea  Company  of  Chicopee 
Falls,  Mass.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  points  of  suspension  are 
three.  A  three-point  suspension  of  the  motor  is  preferable  to  a 
four-point,  for  the  reason  that  any  lateral  distortion  produces  an 


- 


Fig.  10.    Rear  Spring  Suspension. 
Peerless  Motor  Car  Company,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

undue  strain  at  one  of  the  four  points  in  the  latter  type  of  suspen- 
sion, while  in  a  three-point  suspension  the  strain  is  equally  dis- 
tributed. 

Spring=Hangers.  The  spring-hangers  are  drop  forgings  closely 
fitting  into  the  ends  of  the  pressed-steel  frame,  as  seen  in  Fig.  6.  They 
must  be  of  sufficient  length  not  to  unduly  strain  the  frame,  and  must 
be  hot-riveted  to  the  frame. 


8 


AUTOMOBILES 


Springs.     Intermediate  between  the  frame  and  the  axles  are 
the  springs.     These  are  attached  to  the  spring-hangers  by  means  of 

spring  links,  and  rest  on  surfaces 
called  spring  seats  on  the  axles. 

Fig.  10  shows  the  rear  spring 
suspension  employed  by  the  Peer- 
FH.il.  Pun  E..ipt,ea.  spring.  Jess  Motor  Car  Company  of  Cleve- 

Reliance  Motor  Car^Company,  Detroit,  land,  Ohio.       The  Springs  shown 

are  what  are  designated  as  semi- 
elliptical  springs,  with  eight  leaves.  Formerly  springs  were  used  as 
short  as  34  inches,  but  the  tendency  is  toward  longer  springs,  44 


Fie  12     rront  -new,  Franklin  Spring  Suspension.  Showing  TuDular  Front 
3;  H.  Franklin  Manufacturing  Company,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

inches  being  not  an   uncommon   length.      Fig.  10  also   illustrates 
what  is  called  the  drop  type  of  frame  construction,  the  frame  drop- 


AUTOMOBILES 


9 


ping  down  between  the  wheels  so  as  to  carry  the  passengers  nearer 
the  ground  and  thus  lower  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  loaded  car. 

Fig.  11  shows  a  full  elliptic  spring,  with  five  leaves.  This  type 
of  spring  is  used  on  the  lighter  types  of  cars,  but  has  been  largely 
superseded  by  the  semi-elliptical  in  heavier  cars. 

Front  Axles.  Front  axles  have  developed  from  the  solid  type 
with  steering  yoke  part  of  the  same  forging,  to  the  tubular  type  with 
drop  center  and  with  the  steering  yoke  drop-forged  and  brazed  onto 


Fig.  13.    I-Beam  Type  of  Front  Axle,  with  Parts  Making  Up  Front-Axle  System, 
as  Used  in  Frayer-Miller  Cars. 

A— Axle;  B— Knuckle;  C— Pins;  D— Nuts;  E—  Oiler;  f,  G— Roller  Bearings  (Timken) ; 
H— Nut;  J,  7T— Steering  Arms;  L— Cross-Rod ;  M-  Yokes ;  N—  Pins ;  0— Cotters;  P— Oiler; 
Q— Fore  and  Aft  Connecting  Tube;  R— Ball  Joint;  S—  Nut;    T— Front  Hub;  U— Flange; 
V—  Bolts;   W—  Spring  Clips:  X- Nuts, 
.  Oscar  Lear  Automobile  Company,  Columbus,  Ohio. 

the  main  axle  tube  The  tubes  employed  are  seamless,  of  2  to  2J 
inches  diameter,  with  j-inch  walls.  However,  the  uncertainty  of 
workmanship  in  connection  with  brazing  has  resulted  in  a  tendency 
toward  the  I-beam  type  of  front  axle,  in  which  the  steering  yoke  is 
part  of  the  same  piece,  as  is  also  the  spring  seat. 

Fig.  12  shows  the  tubular  type  of  front  axle  as  employed  in  the 
Franklin  motor-car.  Fig.  13  shows  the  I-beam  type  of  axle,  to- 
gether with  a  list  of  detail  parts  which  go  to  make  up  the  assembled 
front  axle,  as  used  in  the  Frayer-Miller  car. 

Rear  Axles.  Rear  axles  are  mostly  of  the  live  or  rotating  type. 
A  few  cars  which  use  the  double-chain  drive  employ  a  non-rotating 
or  dead  rear  axle — that  is,  one  on  which  the  wheels  turn,  while  the 
axle  itself  does  not  turn  with  the  wheels.  This  type  of  axle  is  con- 
siderably used  on  commercial  trucks. 

For  touring  cars  and  passenger  cars  generally,  the  tendency  in 
America  has  been  towards  the  live  axle,  usually  made  in  halves,  each 


10 


AUTOMOBILES 


half  driven  from  a  cen- 
trally located  differen-  , 
tial  gear  set.  The 
construction  and  oper- 
ation of  differential 
gears  is  more  fully 
taken  up  later  under 
the  heading  of  'Tower 
Transmission." 

Fig.  14  shows  a 
chain-driven  rear  axle, 
the  axle  being  in  two 
halves.  The  rear 
wheels  are  keyed  onto 
each  half  of  the  live 
axle,  which  rotates  in 
roller  bearings.  The 
illustration  shows  the 
axle  used  by  the  Cad- 
illac Automobile  Com- 
pany. 

Fig.  15  shows  the 
axle  construction  used 
on  Reo  cars. 

Fig.  16  shows  a 
shaft-drive  rear  axle 
of  the  live  type,  the 
wheels  rotating  with 
the  axle. 

Fig.  17  shows  what 
is  known  as  the  dutch- 
drive  or  floating  type 
of  live  axle.  In  this 
type  the  rear  wheels  do 
not  rotate  on  and  with 
the  live  axle-halves, 
but,  as  seen  in  the  cut, 
they  rotate  on  the  dead 


AUTOMOBILES 


11 


Fig.  15.    Axle  Construction  on  Reo  Cars. 
Reo  Motor  Car  Company,  Lansing,  Mich. 


Fig.  16.    Shaft-Drive  Rear  Axle,  Rear  Vertical  View  at  Left,  Horizontal  View  at  Right. 
Timken  Roller  Bearing  Axle  Company,  Canton,  Ohio. 


Fig.  17.    Clutch-Drive  or  Floating  Type  Rear  Axle,  Rear  Vertical  View  at  Left 

Horizontal  View  at  Right. 
Timken  Roller  Bearing  Axle  Company,  Canton,  Ohio. 


12  AUTOMOBILES 


outer  casings  of  the  axle,  without  being  connected  to  it  except  through 
the  dog-clutch,  which  is  kept  in  position  by  the  hub-cap.  In  this 
type  the  axle  tubes  carry  the  weight  of  the  car  and  of  the  wheels. 

Rear-axle  tubing  should  be  not  less  than  2  inches  in  diameter; 
some  cars  use  as  large  as  3  inches  in  diameter.  The  tubing  should  be 
reinforced  by  a  strut,  as  shown  in  the  cuts. 

Steering  Yoke,  Neck,  and  Knuckle.    The  front  axle  terminates 


Fig.  18.    Steering  Yoke,  Neck,  and  Knuckle. 
Packard  Motor  Car  Company,  Detroit,  Mich. 

at  either  end  in  the  steering  yoke.  In  the  tubular  type  of  front  axle, 
the  steering  yokes  are  usually  brazed  into  the  axle  tube.  The  I-beam 
type  of  front  axle  usually  has  the  yoke  part  of  the  I-beam  piece, 
thus  making  the  axle  and  steering  yoke  all  in  one  piece,  securing  a 
better  construction. 

Fig.  18  shows  the  tubular  type  of  axle,  together  with  steering 
yoke,  neck,  and  knuckle,  as  employed  by  the  Packard  Motor  Car 
Company,  of  Detroit,  Mich.  The  yoke,  it  will  be  seen,  carries  the 


AUTOMOBILES 


13 


vertical  steering  spindle  or  neck.      The  latter,  in  turn,  supports  the 
wheel,  and  is  also  attached  to  the  steering  knuckle. 

Fig.  19  shows  a  detail  of  steering  knuckle  as  used  in  the  Rambler 
car  built  by  Thos.  B.  Jeffery  &  Company,  Kenosha,  Wis.  The  load 
is  carried  on  the  thrust-bearing 
shown  in  section  under  the  upper 
arm  of  the  steering  yoke.  This 
bearing  comprises  two  hardened 
tool-steel  plates  and  a  row  of 
thirteen  f-inch  steel  balls.  The 
center  pin  is  tapered  from  1J 
inches  at  the  top  to  J  inch  at 
the  bottom.  At  each  end  is  a 
nut  bearing  against  the  yoke, 
whereby  the  position  of  the  taper 
pin  within  this  bearing  in  the  knuckle  may  be  adjusted.  To  adjust 
it,  the  nut  at  the  upper  end  must  be  loosened,  and  the  one  at  the 
lower  end  tightened.  This  will  draw  the  taper  downward  into  its  seat 
in  the  knuckle.  If  too  tight,  release  the  lower  nut  and  screw  down 
the  upper  one.  When  properly  adjusted,  tighten  both  nuts. 

The  ball  thrust-bearing  is  usually  packed  in  hard  grease,  and 
will  require  very  little  attention.     The  center  pin  is  provided  with  an 


Fig.  19.    Detail  of  Steering  Knuckle, 

Rambler  Car. 
Thomas  B.  Jeffery  &  Co.,  Kenosha,  Wis. 


Fig.  20.    Steering  Mechanism  of  the  Cartercar. 
Motor  Car  Company,  Detroit,  Mich. 


oil-cup  which  feeds  through  a  vent  as  indicated,  into  the  bearing  of 
the  pin. 

Steering  Connections.  The  two  steering  knuckles  are  con- 
nected by  a  rod  known  at  the  transverse  rod  or  cross-rod,  so  that  they 
will  move  in  unison.  This  rod  is  shown  in  Fig.  20,  as  used  in  the 
Cartercar,  built  by  the  Motor  Car  Company,  Detroit,  Mich. 

The  vertical  steering  spindle  or  neck,  in  addition  to  carrying  the 
wheel  bearing,  in  the  case  of  the  right-hand  spindle  is  usually  made  so 


14 


AUTOMOBILES 


as  to  form  also  in  one  piece  the  steering  arm.  This  construction  is 
shown  in  Fig.  21,  as  used  by  the  Timken  Roller  Bearing  Axle  Com- 
pany, Canton,  Ohio.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  steering  arm  termi- 
nates in  a  round  ball.  This  ball  is  part  of  a  ball-and-socket  joint 


Fig.  21.    Steering  Arm,  Showing  Ball  Joint. 
Timken  Roller  Bearing  Axle  Company,  Canton,  Ohio. 


connecting  the  steering  arm,  through  a  reach-rod,  to  the  sector  shaft 
of  the  steering  column. 

Fig.  22  shows  the  reach-rod  as  used  in  the  Oldsmobile,  made 
by  the  Olds  Motor  Works,  Lansing,  Mich.  The  socket  part  of  the 
ball-and-socket  joint  is  usually  composed  of  two  hollowed-out  bronze 

blocks      adjustable 
for  wear. 

Steering  Gear. 
Cars  are  almost 
universally  steered 
by  means  of  a  large- 
diameter  hand- 
wheel  on  the  top  of 
a  considerably  in- 
clined tubularsteer- 
ing  post'  or  column. 
The  steering  wheel 
is  usually  made  of 
a  solid  three-arm 
brass  ring,  covered 
with  black  walnut 

or  cherry  and  given  a  natural  wood  finish.  The  steering  column  is 
made  of  heavy  steel  tubing  with  brass  tube  outside,  the  outer  casing 
serving  for  a  standard  or  support.  The  innermost  tube  is  the  one 
usually  used  for  steering  purposes.  Concentric  with  the  steering 
tube,  and  surrounding  it,  there  are  frequently  placed  other  tubes 


Fig. 


.    Steering  Connections  of  Oldsmobile. 
Olds  Motor  Works,  Lansing,  Mich. 


AUTOMOBILES 


15 


which  serve  other  purposes  —  in  connection  with  spark  and  throttle 
control. 

The  steering  wheel's  motion  is  transmitted  through  the  inner- 
most tube,  to  a  screw  or  worm,  which  in  turn  meshes  with  a  nut  or 
gear  or  sector  of  a  gear,  operating  a  bell-crank  connected  with  the 
steering  arm. 

The  screw  and  split  or  adjustable  nut  type  of  construction  is 
claimed  to  be  less  liable  to 
have  back-lash  than  the  worm- 
and-gear  type,  as  in  the  former 
all  back-lash  due  to  wear  may 
be  readily  taken  up. 

Fig.  23  shows  a  steering 
column  of  the  screw  and  nut 
type  as  used  by  the  Knox 
Automobile  Company,  Spring- 
field, Mass.  The  screw  is  in- 
tegral with  the  column,  and  is 
cut  from  the  solid  bar.  The 
nut  is  exceptionally  long,  and 
is  formed  of  hard  babbitt,  fin- 
ished to  exactly  fit  the  quin- 
tuple thread  ;  and  has  a  formed 
space  on  one  side  fitting  a  cor- 
responding; block  upon  the  cap. 

thus  preventing  the  nut  from    Knox  AutomobUe  coy,  Sprmgfleid,  Mass. 
turning.     The    bell-crank    in 

this  part  is  of  nickel-steel.     Fig.  24  shows  a  detail  of  the  nut  and 
bell-crank  in  this  same  column. 

The  steering  mechanism  of  an  automobile  is  subjected  to  more 
severe  stresses  and  heavy  vibratory  strains  than  any  other  part,  and 
a  break  in  the  steering  gear  is  almost  certain  to  result  in  a  dangerous 
accident.  Hence  the  need  for  most  liberal  dimensions  and  superfine 
quality  of  material,  and  for  extreme  care  in  construction  of  all  parts 
connected  with  the  steering  system. 

Fig.  25  shows  the  worm-and-gear  type  of  steering  gear  as  used 
by  the  Peerless  Motor  Car  Company,  of  Cleveland,  Ohio.  This  type 
is-  found  used  about  as  frequently  as  the  screw  and  nut  type;  and  if 


Fig.  23.    Steering  Column  of  Screw  and  Nut 


16 


AUTOMOBILES 


the  gears  are  perfectly  cut,  truly  adjusted,  and  made  of  best  material, 
there  should  be  no  perceptible  wear.  In  the  gearing  system  shown 
in  the  illustration,  the  worm  is  located  at  the  base  of  the  steering 
column  proper.  When  the  hand-wheel  is  turned,  this  turns  a  gear. 

A  shaft  is  forged  with  this  gear,  to  which 
is  attached  an  arm  operating  the  con- 
necting-rod to  the  steering  knuckles. 
Around  the  shaft,  where  it  protrudes 
through  the  gear  casing,  is  an  eccentric 
bushing  graduated  by  thirty-seconds  of 
an  inch,  which  may  be  moved  to  take  up 
any  lost  motion  in  the  steering  wheel. 
Moving  this  bushing  so  that  the  widest 
part  is  away  from  the  steering  column, 
forces  the  gear  into  closer  mesh  with  the 
worm.  Moving  this  bushing  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  at  the  most,  should  be  enough 
to  take  up  any  wear.  Should  any  of 
the  teeth  become  worn,  disconnect  the 
arm  from  gear  to  connecting-rod,  and 
five  complete  turns  of  the  steering  hand- 
wheel  will  give  a  new  set  of  teeth  on 
the  gear.  Thrust-bearings  with  f-inch 
balls  are  placed  above  and  below  the 
gear  on  the  steering  column,  and  are  self- 
seating;  and  the  worm  is  adjusted  for 
end  play  by  screwing  down  an  adjust- 
ing nut  at  top  of  casing. 

The  more  usual  form  is  to  use  simply 
a  sector  of  a  gear,  instead  of  a  whole 
gear.  This  type  of  construction  is  shown  in  Fig.  26,  as  used  by  the 
Corbin  Motor  Vehicle  Corporation,  of  New  Britain,  Conn.  The 
form  shown  is  a  worm  and  sector  cut  by  the  Hindley  patented 
process.  By  this  process,  every  tooth  in  the  worm  is  in  contact 
with,  and  for  the  full  width  of,  the  sector  face.  The  steering  case  is 
of  Parsons  manganese  bronze,  and  all  minor  parts  of  the  steering 
system  are  made  of  high-class  steel  forgings. 


Fig.  24.  Detail  of  Nut  and  Bell- 
Crank  in  Screw  and  Nut  Type  of 
Steering  Gear. 

Knox  Automobile  Company, 
Springfield,  Mass. 


AUTOMOBILES 


17 


THE  POWER  PLANT 

The  power  plant  of  an  automobile  includes  the  prime  mover  and 
all  the  accessories  necessary  to  start  it  and  keep  it  in  continuous 
motion.  In  the  case  of  the  electrically  driven  automobile,  the  power 
plant  includes  the  batteries,  rheostat,  motor,  and  other  details  which 
will  be  described  under  the  heading  of  Electrically  Driven  Cars. 
In  the  case  of  steam-propelled  automobiles,  the  power  plant 
includes  the  boiler,  engine,  heating  outfit,  and  accessories  as  de- 


Fig.  25.    Worm-and-Gear  Type  of  Steering 

Gear. 

Peerless  Motor  Car  Company,  Cleveland, 
Ohio. 


Fig.  26.    Worm  and  Sector  Type  of  Steer- 
ing Gear. 

Corbin  Motor  Vehicle  Corporation, 
New  Britain,  Conn. 


scribed  under  the  heading  of  Steam-Driven  Cars.  In  the  case 
of  the  gasoline-driven  car,  the  power  plant  naturally  groups  itself  as 
follows: 

1.  The  engine  proper,  consisting  of  the  reciprocating  parts,  the  rotating 
parts,  the  cylinders,  the  crank-case,  and  the  valves. 

2.  The  fuel  system,  consisting  of  the  gasoline  tank  and  its  connections 
through  the  carbureter  to  and  from  the  engine. 

3.  The  ignition  system,  consisting  of  the  batteries,  the  spark-coils,  the 
magneto  or  dynamo,  the  commutator,  and  the  spark-plugs. 

4.  The   cooling  system,    consisting  of   the   fan,   and,   in   water-cooled 
engines,  also  of  the  water  tank,  the  water  pump  or  siphon,  the  radiator,  and 
interconnecting  parts. 

5.  The  lubricating  system  of  the  motor. 


18 


AUTOMOBILES 


The  Gas=Engine  Cycle.    The  gas-engine  cycle  consists  of  four 
distinct  steps — namely: 

1.  Admission  of  the  charge  of  explosive  fuel. 

2.  The  compression  of  this  charge. 

3.  The  ignition  or  explosion  of  this  charge. 

4.  Exhaust  or  expulsion  of  the  burnt  charge. 


Fig.  27.    Beginning  of  Suction  or  First  Stroke  in  a  Four-Cycle  Engine. 
Cadillac  Motor  Car  Company,  Detroit,  Mich. 

If  the  complete  process  as  above  requires  four  strokes  of  the  piston- 
rod  in  any  one  cylinder,  the  engine  is  designated  as  a  jour-cycle  engine, 
although  a  more  exact  designation  would  be  to  call  it  a  four-stroke 


Fig.  28.    Beginning  of  Second  or  Compression  Stroke  in  a  Four-Cycle  Engine. 
Cadillac  Motor  Car  Company,  Detroit,  Mich. 

cycle.     If  the  complete  process  is  accomplished  in  two  strokes  of  the 
piston,  the  engine  is  designated  as  a  two-cycle  engine. 

Figs.  27,  28,  29,  and  30  show  the  positions  of  piston  and  valves 
during  these  four  steps,  as  they  take  place  in  the  Cadillac  single- 
cylinder  four-cycle  engine. 


AUTOMOBILES 


19 


Fig.  27  shows  the  beginning  of  the  first  or  suction  stroke  of  the 
cycle.  At  T\j  inch  past  the  dead  center  or  end  of  the  stroke,  the 
inlet  valve  A  commences  to  open,  which  allows  the  vapor  supplied 
by  the  carbureter  to  be  drawn  into  the  cylinder,  the  motor  running 
as  indicated  by  the  arrows.  During  this  stroke  the  exhaust  valve 
B  is  closed.  The  inlet  valve  A  is  opened  by  the  eccentric  rod  (7,  its 
movement  being  controlled  by  the  eccentric  on  the  secondary  shaft  D. 
This  shaft  is  driven  at  one-half  the  speed  of  the  motor  by  the  two- 
to-one  gear  E  and  pinion  F. 

Fig.  28  shows  the  beginning  of  the  second  or  compression  stroke 
at  the  closing  point  of  the  inlet  valve,  both  valves  being  closed  during 


Fig.  29.    End  of  Working  or  Third  Stroke  in  a  Four-Cycle  Engine. 
Cadillac  Motor  Car  Company,  Detroit,  Mich. 


this  stroke.  The  piston,  traveling  as  indicated  by  the  arrow,  com- 
presses the  charge  to  a  pressure  of  about  60  pounds,  and  the  com- 
pressed charge  is  ignited  at  or  before  the  end  of  this  stroke  by 
a  spark  taking  place  in  the  spark-plug  (the  action  of  which  will 
be  explained  in  the  discussion  of  Ignition  Systems),  the  force 
of  the  explosion  driving  the  piston  forward  to  the  position  shown  in 
Fig.  29. 

During  these  two  strokes — namely,  the  compression  and  work- 
ing strokes — both  valves,  if  correctly  timed,  should  be  completely 
closed. 

Fig.  29  illustrates  the  end  of  the  working  stroke  or  third  stroke 
of  the  cycle,  where  the  exhaust  valve  commences  to  open  T5^  inch 
from  the  end  of  the  stroke,  or  slightly  previous  to  dead  center. 


20 


AUTOMOBILES 


During  the  fourth  or  exhaust  stroke,  the  gases  are  expelled 
from  the  cylinder  through  the  valve  B.  The  exhaust  valve  B  is 
operated  by  the  cam  7,  which  pushes  the  exhaust  rocker  arm  J  and 
lifts  the  exhaust  valve  B. 

Fig.  30  shows  the  position  when  the  exhaust  valve  B  has  just 
closed  gV  mcn  °f  tne  stroke  past  dead  center.  The  inlet  valve  A  will 
open  yV  m°h  later,  admitting  new  vapor,  as  in  Fig.  27. 

Two=Cycle  Engines.  In  two-cycle  engines  the  crank-case  is 
used  to  admit  the  charge  while  the  piston  is  on  the  upward  stroke. 


Fig.  30.    End  of  Fourth  or  Exhaust  Stroke  in  a  Four-Cycle  Engine. 
Cadillac  Motor  Car  Company,  Detroit,  Mich. 


On  the  working  or  downward  stroke  of  the  piston,  the  vapor  in  the 
crank-case  is  forced  through  a  by-pass,  by  the  descending  piston, 
this  by-pass  admitting  it  into  the  [upper  part  of  the  cylinder, 
where  it  is  compressed  into  small  volume  and  ignited  at  the  proper 
time. 

In  the  two-cycle  engine  the  process  of  exhausting  the  burnt 
gases  and  admitting  the  new  charge  are  both  performed  during  a 
single  downward  stroke,  the  exhaust  port  being  uncovered  first  by 
the  piston  and  allowing  the  greater  part  of  the  burnt  gases  to  escape 
before  the  inlet  port  is  opened.  Hence,  in  the  two-cycle  engine,  an 
impulse  is  received  with  each  revolution  of  the  fly-wheel  and  main 
shaft;  in  the  four-cycle  engine  an  impulse  is  received  every  fourth 
stroke  or  every  other  revolution  of  the  fly-wheel  and  crank-shaft. 

The  two-cycle  engine  offers  strong  talking  points,  since  all 
mechanically  operated  valves  are  replaced  by  mere  port-holes,  which 


AUTOMOBILES 


21 


II II 


results  in  greater  mechanical  efficiency.  Moreover,  the  more  fre- 
quent working  impulses  should  result  in  a  constant  torque  and  much 
smoother  running.  Two-cycle  engines  have  been  in  use  quite  gener- 
ally on  motor-boats.  The  engines  of  the  two-cycle  type  built  for 
marine  work  have  always  shown  considerable  irregularity  in  run- 
ning; and  it  has  been  the  general  impression  that  the  operations  of 
charging,  compressing,  firing,  and  exhausting  cannot  be  properly 
accomplished  during  one  revolution.  However,  it  may  be  that,  just 
as  the  air-cooled  engine  is  gaining  greatly  in  favor,  though  several 
years  ago  not  con- 
sidered equal  to 
the  water-cooled 
type,  so  a  similar 
change  in  favor 
of  the  two-cycle 
engine  may  be 
brought  about  as 
this  type  of  en- 
gine is  perfected. 
There  are  several 
cars  now  on  the 
market,  notable 
among  them  being 
the  Elmore  and  the 
Jewel,  which  are 
showing  up  very 
favorably  with 
two-cycle  engines. 

Fig.  31  shows  the  working  parts  of  the  Elmore  valveless  two- 
cycle  engine.  Each  cylinder  on  a  four-cycle  engine  has  more  parts 
than  all  of  the  cylinders  here  shown. 

Working  Parts  of  Engine.  It  is  essential  that  every  automo- 
bile operator  should  be  familiar  with  the  names  of  the  working  parts 
of  the  engine. 

As  the  single-cylinder  engines  such  as  used  in  the  Reo,  the 
Oldsmobile,  the  Cadillac,  and  other  well-known  runabouts,  are  easier 
to  list  in  detail  than  multiple-cylinder  engines,  a  typical  example  of 
a  single-cylinder  engine,  showing  parts  in  detail,  is  given  in  Fig.  32. 


Fig.  31.    Working  Parts  of  Elmore  4-Cylinder  2-Cycle  Motor, 

Showing  Small  Number  of  Parts. 
Elmore  Manufacturing  Company,  Clyde,  Ohio. 


24  AUTOMOBILES 


Single-  and  Multiple-Cylinder  Engines.  The  single-cylinder  en- 
gine is  of  necessity  the  type  of  engine  used  on  the  lowest-priced 
cars.  It  has  the  advantage  of  simplicity;  and  when  it  comes  to  a 
choice  between  a  high-grade,  relatively  high-priced  single-cylinder 
engine  car  and  a  multiple-cylinder  car  with  a  cheaply  built  engine, 
there  can  be  but  one  choice,  and  that  in  favor  of  the  high-grade 
single-cylinder  engine,  as,  in  the  other  alternative  of  cheaper  cylin- 
ders and  more  of  them,  one  buys  only  more  trouble. 

The  single-cylinder  engine,  having  only  one  working  impulse 


Fig.  33.    One-Cylinder  Engine  as  Used  in  Hewitt  Motor-Car. 
Hewitt  Motor  Company,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

for  every  two  revolutions,  requires  a  fly-wheel  of  heavier  weight  and 
larger  diameter  than  is  used  in  the  multiple-cylinder  engines. 

Fig.  33  shows  a  well-proportioned  one-cylinder  engine,  as  used 
by  the  Hewitt  Motor  Company,  New  York  City. 

In  the  single-cylinder  construction,  even  with  the  very  best 
engine,  the  vibration  is  decidedly  noticeable  when  the  engine  is 
slowed  down  under  load,  as  when  climbing  a  hill. 

The  two-cylinder  opposed  type  of  construction  gives  a  very 
good  balancing  of  reciprocating  parts.  Fig.  34  shows  this  type  of 
engine  as  used  in  the  Reo  touring  car.  The  motor  runs  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  car,  and  causes  no  sidewise  vibration,  which  adds 
materially  to  the  life  of  the  car.  The  original  two-cylinder  opposed 
cars  placed  the  engine  under  the  body,  many  of  them  having  the 


AUTOMOBILES 


25 


engine  crosswise  of  the  car,  thus  causing  undue  vibration,  besides 
having  the  engine  in  an  inaccessible  position.  Most  modern  cars 
with  a  capacity  of  twelve  to  twenty  horse-power,  place  the  two- 
cylinder  engine  under  the  hood,  but  keep  the  engine  in  a  horizontal 
position. 

For  powers  over  twenty  horse-power,  the  four-cylinder  engine 
is  in  almost  universal  use.  The  construction  of  the  engine  in  Fig. 
35  is  what  is  known  as  the  separately  cast  cylinder  type  of  engine. 
Another  type  of 
four-cylinder  con- 
struction, and  one 
quite  generally  used, 
is  the  cast-in-pair 
type.  The  latter 
construction  takes 
up  less  room,  giving 
a  more  compact 
motor,  making  pos- 
sible a  shorter  hood, 
and  also  giving  less 
weight.  On  the 
other  hand,  by  cast- 
ing each  cylinder 
separately,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  have  a  bearing  between  each  crank,  thus  giving  greater 
bearing  surface,  lessening  the  strains  on  the  crank-shaft,  and  in- 
creasing the  life  of  the  bearings.  Moreover,  should  one  cylinder  be 
burnt  out  or  cracked,  in  the  separately  cast  cylinder  type  this  would 
mean  the  loss  of  but  one  cylinder,  while  in  the  cast-in-pair  type  it 
would  mean  the  loss  of  the  pair  of  cylinders.  On  the  whole,  the 
greater  advantage  lies  with  the  separately  cast  construction. 

Principal  Engine  Parts;  Material  and  Workmanship.  The  proper 
material  for  water-cooled  gas-engine  cylinders  is  a  fine-grained 
gray  iron  mixture.  Several  makers  of  high-grade  engines  anneal 
the  cylinders  after  they  are  bored,  and  grind  them  to  gauge  after 
annealing.  This  method  of  machining  has  been  found  to  reduce  to 
a  minimum  the  liability  to  distortion  of  the  cylinder  under  the  tem- 
perature strains  to  which  it  is  subjected. 


Fig.  34.    Two-Cylinder  Opposed  Engine  of  Reo  Car. 
Reo  Motor  Car  Company,  Lansing,  Mich. 


26 


AUTOMOBILES 


Fig.  35.    Four-Cylinder  Vertical  Engine  with  Fly- Wheel  in  Front. 
Stevens-Duryea  Company,  Chicopee  Falls,  Mass. 


Fig.  36.    Cylinders,  Pistons,  and  Connecting  Rods  in  Separately  Cast  Cylinder 

Type  of  Construction. 
Maxwell-Briscoe  Motor  Company,  Tarrytown,  N.  Y. 


AUTOMOBILES 


27 


Fig.  36  shows  the  cylinders,  pistons,  and  connecting  rods  of 
the  Maxwell-Briscoe  motor,  Tarry  town,  N.  Y.  This  illustrates  the 
separately  cast  cylinder  type  of  construction. 

Fig.  37  shows  cylinders,  pistons,  connecting  rods,  crank-shaft, 


Fig.  37.    Disassembled  Motor  of  Packard  Car,  Showing  Cylinders,  Pistons,  Connecting 

Rods,  Crank-Shaft,  and  Fly- Wheel.    Cast-in-Pair  Type  of  Cylinder  Construction. 

Packard  Motor  Car  Company,  Detroit,  Mich. 

and  fly-wheel  of  the  Packard  motor-car,  Detroit,  Mich.  This  illus- 
trates the  cast-in-pair  type  of  cylinder  construction. 

In  each  of  these  illustrations  the  projecting  spaces  at  the  sides  of 
the  main  cylinder  are  the  valve  chambers. 

The  crank-shaft  in  the  best  engines  is  machined  from  a  solid 
forged  slab  of  high-carbon  steel  or  nickel-steel.  By  high-carbon  steel, 
in  the  case  of  a  crank-shaft,  is  meant  a  steel  having  a  percentage  of 
from  .28  to  .30  of  carbon.  Some  of  the  nickel-steels  now  used  in 


28 


AUTOMOBILES 


crank-shaft  construction  have  a  tensile  strength  as  high  as  225,000 
pounds  to  the  square  inch,  and  an  elastic  limit  of  135,000  pounds. 

Fig.  38  shows  the  steps  in  the  cold-machining  of  a  crank-shaft 
as  used  in  the  Columbia  car  built  by  the  Electric  Vehicle  Company, 


Fig  38.    Steps  in  Cold-Machining  of  Crank-Shaft  from  Solid  Slab,  for  Columbia  Car. 
Electric  Vehicle  Company,  Hartford,  Conn. 


Fig.  39.    Cam-Shaft,  Crucible  Steel  Forging  and  Finished  Product. 
Lozier  Motor  Company,  Plattsburg,  N.  Y. 

Hartford,  Conn.  The  next  best  construction  is  one  in  which  the 
crank-shaft  is  hammered  and  bent  into  shape  before  machining; 
while  the  cheaper  engines  use  a  drop-forged  shaft,  which  is  not  as 
likely  to  withstand  severe  strains  as  either  of  the  two  previously 
named  types. 


165  IIS 


DISASSEMBLED  PARTS  OF  BRUSH  RUNABOUT  MOTOR,  MODEL  B. 

Brush  Runabout  Company,  Detroit,  Mich. 

100— Cylinder;  101— Piston;  102— Piston  Ring;  103— Cylinder  Head;  104— Valve-Cap 
(Spark-Plug);  105— Valve-Cap  (Relief);  106-7-8— Elbow  Binder,  Stud,  Nut;  109-10-11— 
Connecting-Rod  Washer.  Nut,  Screw;  112— Piston  Pin  Plug;  113— Piston  Pin;  114— 
Connecting  Rod ;  115— Cylinder  Stud;  116-7— Side-Plate  Studs  (Long,  Short);  118-9— Hand- 
Hole  Cover  Stud,  Nut;  120-1— Nuts  for  Side-Plate  Stud  (Short,  Long);  122— Cylinder 
Stud  Nut;  123— Side  Plate;  124— Counterbalance;  125— Counterbalance  Stud  Cotter; 
126— Counterbalance  Stud;  127— Counterbalance  Stud  Nut;  128— Inlet  Elbow  Gasket 
(Carbureter);  129— Hand-Hole  Cover  Gasket;  130— Side-Plate  Gasket ;  131— Valve-Cap 
Gasket;  132— Cylinder  Gasket:  133— Connecting-Rod  Oil  Tube;  134— Base  or  Crank- 
Case  Oil  Tube;  135— Cylinder  Drain-Cock;  136— Oil  Check-Valve  on  Crank-Case;  137— 
Drain  Plug  (Crank-Case);  138— Valve  Cam;  139— Side  Bearing  Bushing;  140— Cam 
Gear  and  Shaft ;  141— Cam  Gear  Washer;  142— Valve-Cam  Pins ;  143— Side-Plate  Cover 
Screw;  144— Valve  Spring;  145— Valve-Stem  Collar;  146— Commutator  Cam  Pin;  147— 
Valve-Spring  Washer;  148— Valve  Pusher;  149— Valve  and  Stem;  150 -Side-Plate  Cover; 
151— Cam  Roller  Bracket;  152— Cam  Roller  Bracket  Screw;  153— Cam  Roller ;  154— Base 
Bearing  Bushing;  155— Hand-Hole  Cover;  156— Base  of  Crank-Case;  157— Fly- Wheel ; 
158— Front  Base  Arm;  159— Starting  Ratchet  Cotter;  160— Crank-Shaft;  161— Starting 
Ratchet;  162- Starting  Ratchet  Key;  163-4— Crank-Staft  Washers  (Narrow,  Wide); 
\65-6-Fly-Wheel  Key,  Nut. 


AUTOMOBILES 


29 


The  modern  tendency  in  high-grade  engines  is  to  observe  almost 
equal  care  in  the  making  of  the  cams  and  cam-shafts  as  is  observed 
in  the  crank-shaft. 

Fig.  39  shows  a  rough  forging  of  crucible  steel  for  the  com- 
bined cams  and  cam-shaft  as  used  by  the  Lozier  Motor  Company, 
Plattsburg,  N.  Y.,  together  with  the  finished  cam-shaft.  The  cam 
faces  are  hardened  and  ground  to  shape.  Especial  attention  is  also 
given  to  the  bear- 
ings of  the  cam- 
shafts,  some 
makers  using  an- 
nular ball  bear- 
ings for  this  pur- 
pose. 

The  crank- 
case  of  most  mod- 
ern automobile 
engines  is  con- 
structed of  alu- 
minum, parti- 
tioned into  com- 
partments in  or- 
der to  prevent  an 
excess  accumula- 
tion of  oil  at  one 
end  of  the  case 
in  ascending  or 

descending  a  steep  grade.  A  great  many  engines  use  the  crank- 
case  as  the  motor  support,  relying  on  aluminum  arms  to  carry  the 
weight  of  the  cylinders,  crank-shaft,  and  fly-wheel.  The  low  tensile 
strength  of  aluminum  has  been  an  objection  to  this  type  of  construc- 
tion, as  the  arms  are  liable  to  breakage.  Hence  some  makers  have 
adopted  a  light  engine  base  made  of  stronger  material,  such  as  pressed 
steel,  to  which  the  aluminum  crank-case  proper  is  bolted.  Fig.  40 
shows  an  engine  base  and  crank-case  of  this  type  of  construction, 
as  formerly  used  by  the  Premier  Motor  Manufacturing  Company, 
Indianapolis,  Ind. 

The  foregoing  illustrations  will  serve  to  show  typical  examples 


Fig.  40.    Engine  Base,  Showing  Support  Piece  Separate  from 
Crank-Case,  as  Formerly  Used  by  Premier  Motor  Manu- 
facturing Company,  Indianapolis,  Ind.    Case  and 
Support  are  Now  Made  Integral. 


30 


AUTOMOBILES 


of  the  main  parts  of  the  engine  proper.  The  diagrams  shown  in 
Figs.  41  and  42  will  serve  to  show  more  fully  the  relative  location  and 
operation  of  these  parts — particularly  the  valve  action. 

Referring  to  Fig.  41,  which  is  an  end  view  of  the  Rambler  engine 
made  by  Thos.  B.  Jeffery  &  Company,  Kenosha,  Wis.,  at  the  lower 

left-hand  side  will  be  noticed  the 
cam-shaft  and  cam  ready  to  push 
up  on  the  valve-operating  rod, 
which,  when  pushed  up,  actuates 
the  rocker  arm  D  to  push  down 
the  valve  proper,  shown  in  the 
center  at  the  top  of  the  cut, 
against  the  action  of  the  valve- 
spring  A.  While  the  valve  is 
open,  the  charge  is  admitted  in 
the  case  of  the  intake  valve,  or 
expelled  in  the  case  of  the  exhaust 
valve,  during  the  period  that  the 
valve  is  kept  open  by  the  action 
of  the  cam.  As  soon  as  the  cam 
has  passed  the  lifter,  the  action 
of  the  valve-spring  closes  the 
valve  with  a  sharp  cut-off  action. 
Fig.  42  is  a  longitudinal  view 
of  the  same  engine,  showing  the 
inlet  and  exhaust  valves  A  and 
B',  also  other  details  in  connec- 
tion with  the  ignition  and  cooling 
systems,  whose  positions  it  will 
be  well  to  note  now,  but  whose 
action  will  be  described  more  fully  under  the  later  discussions  de- 
voted to  ignition  and  cooling  systems  respectively. 

The  modern  tendency  with  respect  to  valves,  both  inlet  and 
exhaust,  is  to  provide  quick  action  and  abundant  opening  space. 
With  this  in  view,  some  makers  have  adopted  two  valves  in  place 
of  one,  or,  in  some  instances,  exceptionally  large  valves. 

Fig.  43  shows  three  views  of  an  exceptionally  large  valve  as 
used  in  the  1908  Franklin  engine.  Theoretically,  the  ideal  cylinder 


,  Fig.  41.  End  View  of  Rambler  Engine. 
I  A— Valve- Spring  ;  B— Spring  Adjusting 
JNut;  6'— Lock  Nut;  D— Rocker  Arm;  E— 
Screw  for  Taking  Up  Play  in  Rocker  Arm ; 
F— Cap  Screw  for  Locking  E;  G— Pivot  Pin 
for  Rocker  Arm  \H—  Hexagon  Nut  for  Screw- 
ing Valve  Cage  into  Position. 


32 


AUTOMOBILES 


would  be  one  whose  entire  top  would  come  off  to  let  in  a  full  charge, 
and  then  close  immediately,  the  charge  being  next  compressed  and 
exploded,  driving  the  piston  forward,  whereupon  the  top  would 
then  at  once  come  off  completely  again  and  let  out  the  burnt  gases. 
Fig.  43  shows  a  valve  of  about  one-half  the  cylinder  diameter  in  width, 
and  directly  at  the  top  of  the  cylinder. 

CARE  AND  OPERATION  OF  VALVES 

Seating  of  Valves.     If  the  exhaust  valve  does  not  seat  properly, 
there  will  be  a  lack  of  compression  and  loss  of  power  that  way,  and 

also  a  weakening  effect  on  the 
mixture. 

If  the  inlet  valve  does  not  seat 
properly,  there  will  be  loss  of 
compression;  also  there  will  be 
danger  when  the  ignition  takes 
place,  of  shooting  back  into  the 
carbureter  and  having  back-firing 
there. 

The  remedy  is  to  grind  the 
valves  in  place  on  their  seats, 
first  with  emery  and  oil,  and  then 
with  tripoli  and  water. 

The  valves,  it  may  be,  do  not 
seat  properly,  because  of  being 
sooty  or  gummy.  In  this  case 
they  may  not  require  grinding  at 
all,  the  remedy  being  to  clean  them 
with  kerosene. 

In  grinding  valves,  see  that 
waste  is  placed  in  the  opening  to 
the  combustion  chamber  so  as  to 
prevent  the  emery  coming  into 

the  cylinder.  The  operation  of  grinding  is  repeated  until  both  sur- 
taces  are  bright  and  smooth,  with  a  good  fit. 

Care  must  be  taken  that  no  emery  gets  into  the  cylinder,  as  this 
will  cause  sticking  or  seizing  of  piston. 

Almost  all  valves  have  a  slot  on  the  side  opposite  the  stem. 


Fig.  43.    Concentric  Valve  of  1908  Franklin 

Car. 

H.  H.  Franklin  Manufacturing  Company, 
Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


AUTOMOBILES 


33 


This  slot  is  put  there  so  that  a  screw-driver  bit  may  be  inserted,  and 
with  a  brace  the  valve  may  be  rotated  to  and  fro  while  grinding. 

In  grinding,  just  a  small  quantity  of  the  abrasive  paste  should 
be  used  at  a  time,  with  plenty  of  oil.  Make  ten  or  twelve  turns  in  one 
direction;  then  reverse.  Wipe  valve  and  seat  clean  occasionally,  and 
note  the  extent  of  the  bright  line.  At  first  this  will  be  irregular  and 
broken.  But  it  must  become  a  continuous  band  for  good  seating. 

After  this  has  been  accomplished,  wash  valve  and  seat  thor- 
oughly with  kerosene. 


Fig.  44.    Lifter  Assembled.  Fig.  45.    Lifter  Compressing  Spring. 

Tool  for  Removing  Valve. 

If  valve  is  badly  worn,  it  may  be  necessary  to  do  some  filing 
in  order  to  avoid  scoring  and  consequent  catching. 

Figs.  44  and  45  illustrate  a  convenient  tool  for  removing  valves. 
Its  action  is  that  of  compressing  the  spring  and  lifting  the  washer  so 
that  the  cotter  or  key  can  be  removed.  The  directions  for  using  this 
tool  are  as  follows: 

Place  fork  A  beneath  washer  or  in  coil  of  spring  D.  Turn  thumb-screw 
B  until  point  sets  on  top  of  valve  C.  Then  screw  down  until  spring  D  is  com- 
pressed enough  to  remove  key  E. 

To  remove,  back  up  on  screw  B,  remove  lifter,  and  take  out  valve,  so 
that  necessary  grinding,  etc.  can  be  done. 

To  replace  valve  in  position,  simply  reverse  above  instructions. 

0  represents  adjusting  holes  adapted  for  different  lengths  of  cylinders 
and  for  getting  over  or  under  exhaust  pipes. 


34  AUTOMOBILES 


Timing  of  Valves.  If  the  exhaust  valve  closes  too  early,  there 
will  be  some  compression  left  when  the  intake  valve  opens,  blowing 
back  through  the  carbureter  and  affecting  the  mixture,  and  also 
likely  to  cause  firing  in  the  carbureter. 

If  the  exhaust  valve  should  close  too  late,  it  would  be  open  when 
the  inlet  valve  is  open,  weakening  the  mixture  in  the  cylinder. 

If  the  exhaust  valve  opens  too  late,  there  will  be  back-pressure 
caused  by  the  cylinder  being  full  of  the  exhaust  gas.  The  cam  is 
so  set  that  the  exhaust  valve  opens  just  before  the  beginning  of  the 
exhaust  stroke,  so  as  to  avoid  this  back-pressure. 

Improper  valve  timing  may  be  caused  by  looseness  of  the  reduc- 
tion gear  driving  the  cam-shaft. 

To  Set  Valve  for  Proper  Timing.  In  a  four-cylinder  engine 
the  four  cranks  are  usually  180  degrees  or  half  a  revolution  apart, 
so  that  there  is  an  impulse  or  power  stroke  every  half-revolution, 
occurring  in  the  order  of  first,  third,  fourth,  second. 

The  cam-shaft  is  driven  by  a  gear  fastened  to  the  crank-shaft. 
The  cam-shaft  driving  gear,  mounted  on  the  crank-shaft,  has  only 
half  as  many  teeth  as  the  cam-shaft  driven  gear  which  is  mounted  on 
the  cam-shaft.  Hence,  for  one  revolution  of  the  crank-shaft,  the  cam- 
shaft turns  only  through  half  a  revolution.  The  cams  are  usually 
all  keyed  to  the  cam-shaft,  or  a  part  of  the  same,  so  that  the  adjust- 
ment of  the  cam-shaft  with  respect  to  the  crank-shaft,  if  correct  for 
one  valve,  is  correct  for  all  the  valves. 

The  highest  grades  of  motors  have  the  cam-shafts  and  cams  made 
of  one  piece  of  steel  so  that  there  is  no  disadjustment  possible. 

The  first  thing  to  do  in  valve-setting  is  to  establish  the  dead 
center  lines  on  the  fly-wheel.  This  is  very  easily  done  on  a  four- 
cylinder  engine  or  two-cylinder  engine,  since  the  points  on  the  fly- 
wheel will  be  diametrically  opposite.  In  the  diagram,  Fig.  46,  the 
dead  center  lines  are  shown  by  the  vertical  and  horizontal  lines  re- 
spectively. By  establishing  these  points  and  chalking  the  fly-wheel 
and  the  cylinder  flange,  and  then  marking  the  points  on  the  fly-wheel 
and  the  cylinder  flange  with  a  scriber,  the  scriber  mark  on  the  fly- 
wheel and  cylinder  flange  will  coincide  when  the  pistons  of  the  first 
and  fourth  or  second  and  third  cylinders,  as  the  case  may  be,  are 
at  the  highest  point  of  their  travel,  or  on  their  head-end  dead  centers, 
respectively. 


AUTOMOBILES 


35 


Auction  Open 


Measured  on  Fa.ce  of 
r.  ri-X  "free! 
-haust  Closed 


The  diagram  shows  the  angles  past  the  dead  center  lines  at 
which  the  suction  and  exhaust  valves  usually  open  and  close.  It  is 
well  to  determine  these  angles  and  mark  them  permanently  on  the 
fly-wheel  when  the  engine  is  new  and  in  first-class  running  condition. 
The  diagram  shows  that  the  suction  opens  about  five  degrees  past  the 
dead  center  line,  and  closes  thirty  degrees  past  the  opposite  dead 
center.  The  first  two  strokes  represented  by  one  complete  revolu- 
tion in  the  direction  of 
the  arrow,  represent  the 
suction  and  compression 
strokes.  The  next  half- 
revolution  represents  the 
explosion  and  expansion 
stroke.  The  fourth  half- 
circumference  represents 
the  exhaust  stroke,  and 
the  exhaust  valve  opens 
at  a  point  fourteen  de- 
grees past  the  dead  cen- 

\.  \    ^Suction  Closed 

^^---^  ^1-^*       \ 

Exhaust 


Face  of  fly  Wheel 

\  5" Measured  on  fa.ce 
I       of   Fly  Wheel 

TO  Be  Timed  When  Hot. 

Fig.  46.    Diagram  Showing  How  to  Use  Fly- Wheel  to 
Regulate  the  Setting  of  Valves  for 

Proper  Timing. 

The  angles  indicated  vary  with  different  engines,  dis- 
tances along  circumference  as  indicated  in  inches  apply 
to  a  fly-wheel  19  inches  in  diameter. 


ter  line,  closing  at  the 
end  of  the  fourth  stroke 
on  dead  center. 

To  determine  the 
instant  at  which  valves 
are  moved,  insert  a  fin- 
ger into  the  cylinder, 
and  feel  whether  the 
valve  is  on  its  seat  and 
does  not  turn  freely.  In  some  engines  this  can  be  done  by  inserting 
the  finger  through  the  spark-plug  hole,  as  shown  in  the  sectional  view 
of  the  two-cylinder  engine,  Fig.  47.  In  other  engines  it  may  be 
necessary  to  remove  the  exhaust  pipe  in  order  to  determine  a  move- 
ment of  the  valves.  If  the  events  are  all  relatively  out  of  time,  esti- 
mate how  many  teeth  the  cam-shaft  gear  will  have  to  be  turned  in 
relation  to  the  driving  gear  to  bring  the  events  correct.  Having  done 
this,  chalk  and  number  the  gear  teeth,  and,  removing  the  crank- 
shaft gear  and  keeping  the  crank-shaft  stationary,  rotate  the  cam- 
shaft gear  one  tooth  or  more  in  the  proper  direction.  Then 


36  AUTOMOBILES 


replace  the  driving  gear,  and  retest.  This  is  the  course  to  pursue 
if  a  valve  is  opening  too  early  and  closing  too  early,  or  opening  too  late 
and  closing  too  late,  which  is  a  sure  indication  that  the  cam-shaft 
does  not  bear  the  proper  relation  to  the  crank-shaft.  If  events  of 
opening  and  closing  of  valves  are  not  regularly  out  of  time,  the  remedy 
does  not  lie  in  the  adjustment  of  the  cam-shaft,  but  in  the  adjust- 
ment of  the  individual  valve  push-rods.  Provision  for  lengthening 
or  shortening  these  is  made  in  different  ways  in  different  engines ;  and 


Fig.  47.    Section  of  Two-Cylinder  Engine  Permitting  of  Access  to 
Valves  through  Spark-Plug  Hole. 

this  lengthening  and  shortening  must  be  done  for  such  individual 
valves  as  lift  or  close  out  of  time,  until  all  the  events  occur  in  uni- 
form sequence — that  is,  until  the  angles  past  the  dead  center  lines 
are  the  same  for  each  valve. 

Poor  Compression.  To  improve  compression,  see  that  valves 
are  not  leaky;  that  is,  regrind  them,  if  necessary,  until  they  seat  per- 
fectly and  there  is  no  leak.  See  also  that  there  is  sufficient  oil,  but 
do  not  supply  a  surplus  of  oil.  Use  just  as  much  oil  as  can  be  used 
without  causing  smoke  or  carbonizing.  Too  much  oil  will  cause  the 
exhaust  valves  to  become  choked  up. 

A  small  pressure-gauge  is  applied  to  the  spark-plug  hole  in  the 


AUTOMOBILES  37 


cylinder,  in  order  to  test  for  compression.  Note  the  gauge  reading 
when  cranking  slowly.  In  testing  for  leaks,  soap-water  is  injected 
at  all  points  suspected,  and  the  location  of  the  bubbles  will  indicate 
the  points  of  leak. 

Another  cause  of  lack  of  compression  may  be  the  sticking  of 
piston-rings,  due  to  corrosion  or  carbonizing.  Cleaning  with  kerosene 
is  the  remedy. 

The  compression  may  also  be  weakened  by  a  leak  at  the  base  of 
the  spark-plug. 

Overheating  is  likely  to  be  accompanied  by  bad  compression. 

The  easiest  way  to  test  for  poor  compression  is  by  cranking. 
If  there  is  but  little  resistance,  the  compression  is  weak. 

Corrosion.  To  remove  corrosion  in  cylinders,  put  kerosene 
into  them,  and  let  it  remain  over  night.  At  the  end  of  each  week,  it 
is  well  to  put  in  each  cylinder  a  half-pint  of  kerosene ;  and  in  the  morn- 
ing, by  opening  the  compression  relief-cocks,  the  kerosene  can  be 
blown  out  of  the  cylinders.  If  cylinders  are  hardened  with  corrosion, 
it  must  be  scraped  out. 

For  removing  corrosion,  Mr.  C.  T.  Ziegler,  who  conducts  one 
of  the  most  prominent  selling  agencies  in  Chicago,  recommends  a 
mixture  consisting  of  two-thirds  paraffine  oil  and  one-third  kerosene. 
He  states  that  he  has  found  this  more  effective  than  anything  else 
in  removing  hard  substance. 

To  have  as  little  corrosion  as  possible,  it  is  advisable  to  use  only 
the  highest  grade  of  mineral  oil. 

COOLING  SYSTEMS 

The  Air=Cooled  Engine.  As  the  efficiency  and  consequently 
the  power  of  a  gas  engine  depend  on  the  temperature  difference  at 
the  end  of  the  stroke  below  that  at  the  beginning,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  more  perfect  the  cooling  system,  other  things  being  equal,  the 
more  efficient  will  be  the  engine,  and  the  greater  power  per  cylinder 
will  it  develop. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  but  a  few  years  ago  air-cooled  engines 
were  not  considered  a  possibility  for  high  power,  as  the  limit  to  be 
reached  in  a  4  by  4-inch  cylinder  was  about  5  horse-power.  Larger 
cylinders  were  found  to  get  too  hot  and  to  subject  the  metal  to  too 
great  strains,  besides  burning  up  the  lubricant.  As  compared  with 


38 


AUTOMOBILES 


this  rating  of  a  few  years  ago  of  5  horse-power  per  cylinder  for  the 
air-cooled  engine,  which  rating  may  still  be  found  in  many  textbooks 
on  gas  engines  and  automobiles,  it  is  interesting  to  note  how  im- 
provements in  air-cooling  have  enabled  the  manufacturers  of  the 
Franklin  car  to  build  a  3J  by  3J-inch  engine  with  a  capacity  of  12 
horse-power  to  the  cylinder. 

The  air-cooled  type  of  engine  is  being  used  on  a  good  many 
popular  and  successful  cars;  and  the  growing  percentage  of  all  Ameri- 
can cars  using  air-cooled  motors  is  certain  evidence  of  the  improve- 
ment of  this  type 
of  engine. 

Fig.  48  shows 
a  single-cylinder 
air-cooled  engine 
as  used  in  the 
Orient  buck- 
board  manufac- 
tured by  the 
Waltham  Manu- 
facturing Com- 
pany, Waltham, 
Mass. 

Fig.  49  shows 
a  two  -  cylinder 
opposed  air- 
cooled  motor  with  4  by  4-inch  cylinders,  as  used  in  the  Holsman 
Automobile,  Chicago.  It  lies  lengthwise  of  the  car.  Special  fea- 
tures of  this  engine  are  a  double  set  of  spark-plugs  wired  up  so 
that  a  snap  switch  turns  off  one  set  and  turns  on  the  other;  also 
cylinder-heads  screwing  into  the  cylinders  instead  of  being  fastened 
on  by  studs,  thus  facilitating  quick  removal  and  replacement  of 
the  cylinder-heads.  The  flat  spokes  of  the  fly-wheel  act  as  a  venti- 
lating fan. 

Fig.  50  shows  the  exhaust  side   of  the   Franklin  six-cylinder 

engine.     The  illustration  shows  the  regular  exhaust  pipe  from  the 

top  and  the  auxiliary  exhaust  pipe  from  the  bottom  of  the  cylinders. 

Fig.  51  shows  the  1908  Franklin  engine  in  "phantom"  drawing, 

showing  all  the  working  mechanism.     The  large  intake  valve  and 


Fig.  48.    Single-Cylinder  Air-Cooled  Engine  as  Used  in 

Orient  Buckboard. 
Waltham  Manufacturing  Company,  Waltham,  Mass. 


AUTOMOBILES 


39 


Fig.  49.    Two-Cylinder  Opposed  Air-Cooled  Engine  as  Used 

in  Holsman  Automobile. 
Holsman  Automobile  Company,  Chicago,  111. 


Fig.  50.    Exhaust  Side  of  Franklin  Six-Cylinder  Engine,  Snowing  Kegular  Exhaust 

Pipe  from  Top  and  Auxiliary  Exhaust  from  Bottom  of  Cylinders. 

H.  H.  Franklin  Manufacturing  Company,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


40 


AUTOMOBILES 


Fig.  51.    "Phantom"  Drawing  of  1908  Franklin  Air-Cooled  Engine. 
H.  H.  Franklin  Manufacturing  Company,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  52.    Sectional  View  of  Franklin  1908  Engine. 
H.  H.  Franklin  Manufacturing  Company,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


AUTOMOBILES 


41 


auxiliary  exhaust  valves  have  already  been  mentioned.  Another 
feature  of  this  engine  is  the  two  fans — a  gear-driven  fan  in  front,  and 
a  fly-wheel  suction  fan  in  the  rear.  Fig.  52  gives  a  sectional  view  of  the 
same  engine. 

In  the  Prayer-Miller  motor,  manufactured  by  the  Oscar  Lear 
Automobile  Company,  Columbus,  Ohio,  a  centrifugal  blower  posi- 
tively driven  by  the  engine  crank-shaft  forces  a  directed  current  of 


Fig.  53.    External  View  of  Frayer-Miller  Engine  Cooled  by  Centrifugal  Blower,  Inlet  Side. 
Oscar  Lear  Automobile  Company,  Columbus,  Ohio. 

air  over  and  around  the  cylinder  heads,  walls,  and  valve-seats,  in 
the  direction  required  to  produce  most  effective  cooling.  This 
results  in  an  increased  amount  of  draft  as  the  engine  speed  is  in- 
creased; also  in  a  positive  draft  whether  the  car  is  in  motion  or 
standing  still.  Fig.  53  is  an  external  view  of  this  motor,  showing  the 
inlet  side.  The  centrifugal  blower,  with  its  enclosed  air-blast  pipe, 
is  seen  at  the  right.  Fig.  54  shows  the  same  motor  in  section.  The 
centrifugal  blower  is  geared  to  the  crank  in  a  ratio  of  4  to  1.  The 
starting  crank  is  attached  to  the  blower  shaft;  and  it  is  there- 
fore easier  to  crank  the  motor  in  starting,  on  account  of  this  4-to-l 
gear. 


AUTOMOBILES 


43 


Fig.  55.    Bottom  View  of  63-H.  P.  Revolving-Cylinder  Motor  of 
Adams-Farwell  Car,  with  Cast-Iron  Cylinders  and 


Longitudinal  Cooling  Flanges. 
Adams  Company,  Dubuque,  low* 


A  description  of  air-cooled  motors  would  not  be  complete  with- 
out mention  of  the  revolving-cylinder  motor  as  used  in  the  Adams- 
Farwell  car  built  by  the  Adams  Company,  Dubuque,  Iowa. 

Fig.  55  is  an  external  view  of  this  motor;  Fig.  56  shows  the 
motor  in  its  mounting  in  the  frame;  and  Fig.  57  is  a  diagram  illus- 
trating its  opera- 
tion. The  cylinders 
revolve  around  a 
common  center — 
the  vertical  sta- 
tionary crank- 
shaft. The  pistons 
and  connecting 
rods  revolve 
around  another 
common  center — 
the  single  crank- 
pin.  The  rotating 
cylinders  throw  off 
the  hot  air  by  the 
action  of  the  cen- 
trifugal force,  thus 
doing  away  with 
the  necessity  for  a 
fan.  The  weight 
of  the  revolving 
cylinders  serves 
the  same  purpose 
as  a  fly-wheel.  By 
doing  away  with 
fan  and  fly-wheel, 
the  total  weight  required  is  less  than  in  engines  of  ordinary  con- 
struction. 

Water=Cooling  Systems.  In  water-cooled  engines  the  cooling 
system  consists  of  a  water  storage  tank,  connected  by  pipes  to  a  cir- 
culating pump,  from  which  pipes  connect  to  the  cylinder  jackets, 
which  open,  at  a  point  remote  from  the  inlet  pipe,  to  outflow  pipes 
leading  to  the  top  of  the  radiator,  back  of  which  is  a  suction  fan. 


Fig.  56.    Revolving-Cylinder  Motor  of  Adams-Farwell  Car, 

in  Mounting  on  Frame. 
Adams  Company,  Dubuque,  Iowa. 


44 


AUTOMOBILES 


Fig.  58  shows  a  water-cooling  system  designed  for  a  four-cylinder 
engine  with  independently  cast  cylinders.  Fig.  59  shows  a  system 
for  the  twin-cylinder  or  ucast-in-pair"  type  of  construction.  Both 
of  these  diagrams  show  systems  in  which  the  radiator  itself  is  the 
only  storage  tank.  A  good  many  cars  have  a  storage  tank  for  water, 
in  addition  to  the  radiator. 

Referring  to  Fig.  58,  it  will  be  noticed  that  from  the  lower  part 
01  the  radiator  a  tube  runs  to  a  water-strainer,  which  is  an  easily 

opened  receptacle 
containing  a  small 
disc  of  wire  gauze 
preventing  the  pas- 
sage of  sand  and 
dirt  into  the  water 
pump.  The  strainer 
is  also  provided  with 
a  cock  for  draining 
the  entire  water  sys- 
tem. Most  water 
systems  provide  also 
a  cock  in  the  pipe, 
just  underneath  the 
radiator.  In  drain- 
ing the  water  sys- 
tem, be  sure  that 
both  these  cocks  are 
opened ;  otherwise 
some  water  will  remain  in  the  system,  which  might  result  in  freez- 
ing in  cold  weather. 

Rubber  hose  connections  in  the  water  system  are  a  source  of 
great  annoyance,  and  are  being  discontinued  in  the  best  cars,  where 
they  are  being  replaced  by  copper  pipes  with  ground  connections. 
Copper  tubing,  though  longer-lived  than  rubber  hose,  has  also  dis- 
advantages due  to  its  liability  to  corrosion.  Aluminum  tubing  has 
been  used  by  some  makers,  though  not  to  sufficient  extent  as  yet  to 
determine  whether  it  can  be  recommended  as  the  most  desirable 
flexible  tubing  or  not. 

In  order  to  insure  the  clearness  of  water  in  the  water-circulating 


Fig.  57.    Diagram  Showing  Operation  of  Adams-Fanvell 

Rotating-Cylinder  Engine. 
Adams  Company,  Dubuque,  Iowa. 


AUTOMOBILES 


45 


-    Fig.  58.    Water-Cooling  System  for  Separately  Cast  Cylinder  Engine. 
E.  R.  Thomas  Motor  Company,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

system,  a  hose  attached  to  city  water  should  be  allowed  to  pour  into 
the  water  tank,  the  drain-cocks  being  left  open  and  the  engine  kept 
running  for  some  ten  minutes,  or  until  the  outflowing  water  is  per- 
fectly clear  and  clean. 

Radiators  are  either  tubular  or  cellular,  the  latter  class  being 


U'pperTank 


Radiator 


V&lve  Regulating 
Amount  of  Hot 
"ater  in  Car- 
tturetof 


Vot  Water 


«QK)  Drain  Cock 


Fig.  59.    Water-Cooling  System  for  Twin-Cylinder  Engine. 
Peerless  Motor  Car  Company,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 


46  AUTOMOBILES 


also  designated  as  the  honeycomb  type.  The  tubular  type  consists  of 
either  vertical  or  horizontal  tubes,  preferably  of  circular  section  and 
of  rapidly  radiating  material  (such  as  copper) ,  with  projecting  fins  or 
washers  to  assist  in  dissipating  the  heat.  The  tubular  type  has  an 
advantage  over  the  cellular  type  in  that  its  construction  is  usually 
such  that  if  a  leak  occurs  in  one  tube  the  entire  radiator  is  not  put 
out  of  commission.  In  the  cellular  type,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
main  aim  of  the  construction  is  to  secure  free  play  and  flow  of  water 
in  all  directions  through  a  continuous  body  of  water,  by  means  of 


Fig.  60.    Tubular  Radiator,  Showing  Sectional  and  Separable-Construction  Flat  Tubing 

and  Large  Radiating  Fins. 
Reo  Motor  Car  Company,  Lansing,  Mich. 

lateral  joints.  This  type  of  radiator  is  more  efficient  than  the  tubu- 
lar, but  more  fragile.  Fig.  60  shows  the  Reo  tubular  radiator;  and 
Fig.  61,  the  Mayo  cellular  radiator. 

Pumps  are  almost  universally  of  the  gear  type,  the  water  being 
lifted  by  the  pressure  of  gear  teeth  against  each  other.  A  few  cars 
use  pumps  with  flat  or  square  pistons,  but  the  gear  type  is  super- 
seding these.  In  early  cars,  both  pump  and  fan  were  belt-driven,  but 
recent  practice  is  in  favor  of  gear  drive  from  the  cam-shaft. 

The  gear  type  of  pump  has  an  advantage  over  the  piston  type 
in  that  the  strain  is  not  periodic  but  is  uniform  throughout  the  entire 
revolution  Fig.  62  shows  the  principle  of  operation  of  the  gear 
type  of  pump. 

Still  another  method  of  circulation  is  used  in  the  Maxwell  car, 
known  as  the  thermo-siphon  method,  which  is  simply  a  siphonage 
in  place  of  a  pump.  The  circulation,  depending  entirely  on  tern- 


UNIVERSITY 

or 


AUTOMOBILES 


47 


perature  difference  and  not  on  engine  speed,  is  greatest  when  the 
engine  is  hottest,  which  may  be  when  its  speed  is  low,  as  in  going  up 

a  hill. 

Fig.  63  shows  the  Peerless  engine,  giving  a  view  of  the  encased 


Fig.  61.    Mayo  Cellular  Radiator  of  Type  Used  in  Stearns  30-60-H.  P.  Cars. 
Mayo  Radiator  Company,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

geared  pump  at  the  right,  also  the  belt-driven  cooling  fan.     The 
arrows  indicate  the  direction  of  water  circulation. 

Gaskets.  In  all  flanged  joints  where  a  flange  fits  to  another 
flange  or  to  a  cylinder  or  pump-shell  or  any  other  part  in  a  water 
line  or  steam  line,  a  compressible  piece  is  inserted  between  the  two 


48 


AUTOMOBILES 


metallic  surfaces  to  make  the 
joint  tight  against  water  or  steam 
or  whatever  the  circulating  fluid 
may  be.  These  compressible 
pieces  are  called  gaskets.  In 
steam-engine  practice,  gaskets  are 
usually  made  of  rubber  or  some 
composition  of  rubber,  asbestos, 
and  cotton.  Owing  to  the  high 
temperatures  of  gas  engines,  rub- 
ber composition  gaskets  are  not 
so  satisfactory  as  metallic  gas- 
kets. 

Fig.  64  shows  types  of  copper-asbestos  gaskets  made  by  McCord 
&  Company,  Chicago, 

In  emergencies,  gaskets  are  easily  made  out  of  any  stiff  brown 
paper  covered  with  graphite.  The  addition  of  graphite  to  a  stiff 
brown  paper  makes  the  paper  quite  brittle;  and  in  fitting  it  to  the 


Fig.  62.    Operation  of  Gear  Type  of  Water- 
Circulating  Pump. 


Fig.  63.    Peerless  Engine,  Showing  Cooling  Pump  and  Fan. 
Peerless  Motor  Car  Company,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 


AUTOMOBILES 


49 


flange,  it  can  be  hammered  into  form,  and  the  projecting  part  broken 
off  with  the  hand. 

If  a  gasket  gives  way  in  the  cooling- jacket  connection,  it  is  apt 
to  result  in  the  jacket  not  receiving  enough  cooling  water,  owing  to 
the  leak.  In  such  a  case  a  temporary  gasket  of  paper  should  be 
inserted.  A  leaky  gasket  can  be  detected  while  the  car  is  running, 
by  a  hissing  sound,  if  in  the  cylinder.  If  the  leak  is  between  the 


Fig.  64.    Types  of  McKim  Copper  Asbestos-Lined  Gaskets. 
McCord  &  Company,  Chicago,  111. 

water-jacket   and  the  cylinder,   the  engine  will   miss  explosions  if 
cooling  water  gets  inside  the  cylinder. 

Water  in  the  cylinders  can  be  detected  by  opening  the  pet-cocks 
and  rotating  the  engine  by  the  starting  crank.  Sometimes  it  is 
apparent  .from  steam  issuing  from  the  muffler  when  the  engine  is 
running.  If,  after  tightening  all  of  the  studs  and  nuts  holding  the 
engine-head  to  the  cylinder,  the  leaking  continues,  a  new  gasket  is 
necessary.  To  apply  it  successfully,  the  surfaces  of  the  cylinder- 
head  and  cylinder  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  with  gasoline,  and 
any  foreign  material  removed  either  by  washing  with  gasoline  or  by 
scraping.  The  surfaces  of  both  head  and  cylinder  should  next  be 


50  AUTOMOBILES 


coated  with  silicate  of  soda,  and  allowed  to  dry  thoroughly.  The 
gasket  should  then  be  soaked  in  the  soda  (if  it  is  of  asbestos  or  as- 
bestos composition),  and  allowed  to  dry  partially.  If  of  paper  and 
a  temporary  makeshift,  it  should  be  coated  with  graphite.  Place 
the  gasket  on  the  cylinder,  put  the  head  in  place,  and  tighten  the 
studs  and  nuts.  In  doing  this,  be  careful  to  distribute  the  pressure 
evenly — that  is,  tighten  each  stud  and  nut  only  a  little  at  a  time,  until 
they  have  all  been  set  home.  After  doing  this,  start  the  engine,  and 
allow  it  to  run  one  or  two  minutes  without  water  in  the  tank.  Stop 
it,  tighten  the  studs  and  bolts  again,  and  fill  the  tank  with  water. 
Do  not  use  too  long  a  wrench  in  tightening,  and  do  not  use  too  much 
force  at  once. 

Overheating  of  Engine.  When  overheating  occurs,  everything 
begins  to  rattle  and  knock.  You  have  premature  ignition.  It 
makes  a  "pinging"  sound.  The  mixture  ignites  from  the  heat, 
instead  of  from  the  spark.  If  allowed  to  continue  running  when 
overheated,  the  engine  will  transmit  its  heat  to  oil  in  the  cylinders, 
and  if  hotter  than  the  burning  point  of  the  oil,  the  oil  will  burn  and 
its  odor  will  be  noticed.  Steam  will  be  seen  emanating  from  the 
cap  of  the  radiator.  The  car  will  lose  power  and  slow  up.  Over- 
heating causes  expansion  of  the  piston,  while  at  the  same  time  all 
the  parts  become  weaker  and  liable  to  distortion. 

When  overheating  is  noticed,  the  best  thing  to  do  is  to  shut 
down  and  let  the  parts  cool  off.  In  the  case  of  an  air-cooled  engine, 
this  is  all  that  can  be  done;  and  after  starting  again,  be  sure  that 
your  mixture  is  not  too  rich  or  too  plentiful.  Before  starting,  dis- 
connect the  spark-plugs,  and  crank  the  engine  a  while  so  as  to  draw 
cool  air  through  the  cylinders.  In  the  case  of  a  water-cooled  engine, 
some  people  would  advise  running  the  engine  with  spark  well  ad- 
vanced, throttle  closed,  and  engine  free.  This  would  cause  rapid 
circulation  of  the  water,  which  has  previously  been  cooled  by  drawing 
off  a  part  of  it  and  putting  in  some  cold  water.  This  would  be  the 
course  to  pursue  in  case  the  overheating  had  been  caused  by  working 
the  engine  too  hard,  and  not  because  of  lack  of  water.  If  water  has 
all  been  used  up,  or  if  radiator  and  jackets  are  full  of  steam,  avoid 
causing  a  sudden  chill  by  pouring  in  cold  water.  Such  a  chill  is  likely 
to  cause  cracking  of  parts. 

Other  causes  of  overheating  are  found  in  defects  in  the  water- 


AUTOMOBILES  51 


circulating  system,  such  as  the  failure  of  the  pump  to  work,  the 
presence  of  some  obstruction  in  the  water  pipes,  such  as  a  piece  of 
solder,  or  a  leak  in  the  water  line.  Overheating  is  also  sometimes 
due  to  too  rich  mixture  in  the  carbureter.  A  strainer  should  always 
be  used  in  pouring  in  water,  so  as  to  prevent  any  dirt  or  grit  getting 
into  the  pump  or  pipe-line. 

A  piece  of  rubber  tubing  is  useful  to  carry  as  a  temporary  re- 
pair to  leaks. 

What  is  known  as  an  air-lock,  caused  'by  air-bubbles  in  the 
pump,  may  impede  water  circulation.  The  remedy  for  this  is  to 
let  the  water  flow  out,  and  to  keep  pouring  in  new  water. 

Steaming  Radiators.  If  the  water  in  your  radiator  manifests 
a  disposition  to  boil,  and  the  gathering  steam  blows  the  filling  cap 
off,  do  not  try  to  cure  the  trouble  by  using  an  extra  supply  of  solder 
on  the  cap.  The  pump  or  its  driving  connection  may  be  broken;  or 
a  pipe  or  strainer  may  be  clogged  by  waste  or  by  a  chance  stone;  or 
the  carbureter  may  be  feeding  an  excessively  rich  mixture;  or  there 
may  be  oil  in  the  radiator,  preventing  contact  of  the  water  with  the 
cooling  metal  surface. 

Care  of  Water=Cooling  System  in  Cold  Weather.  In  freezing 
weather,  it  is  very  important  that  the  engine  be  not  stopped  while 
the  car  is  left  out  in  the  open;  and  that  when  the  car  is  put  away 
in  its  storage  place  for  the  night,  all  the  water  be  drained  out  if 
exposed  to  freezing  temperature,  unless  the  circulating  system  is 
rilled  with  a  non-freezing  mixture.  There  are  various  kinds  of  non- 
•  freezing  mixtures  on  the  market.  Good  mixtures  can  be  made  in 
the  following  ways: 

1.     A  50  per  cent  solution  of -wood  alcohol. 

2  Put  10  Ibs.  of  chemically  pure  chloride  of  calcium  and  a  handful  of 
unslaked  lime  into  a  pail  of  water.  After  this  preparation  is  carefully  mixed 
and  dissolved,  pour  into  the  radiator  or  tank  through  a  strainer. 

3.     A  40  per  cent  solution  of  glycerin  and  water. 

GASOLINE   SYSTEM 

The  gasoline  or  fuel  system  consists  of  the  gasoline  tank,  which 
is  sometimes  provided  with  a  reserve  or  emergency  chamber,  and 
usually  with  a  dirt  or  sediment  chamber;  piping,  leading  to  mixer  or 
carbureter;  the  carbureter  itself,  which  will  be  described  more  fully 


52 


AUTOMOBILES 


in  detail;  and  pipes 
leading  from  the  car- 
bureter to  the  valve- 
chambers  of  the  engine, 
the  piping  being  pro- 
vided with  necessary 
cocks  and  control  valves. 
Fig.  65  shows  the 
gasoline  system  of  the 
Thomas  Flyer,  made 
by  the  E.  R.  Thomas 
Motor  Company,  Buf- 
falo, N.  Y.  The  gaso- 
line tank  is  placed  un- 
der the  forward  seats, 
and  contains  twenty  gal- 
lons. On  the  extreme 
left  of  the  tank,  a 
Reserve  Chamber  (A)  is 
partitioned  off.  It  is 
connected  by  a  pipe  E 
to  the  main  chamber. 
The  valve  C  in  this  pipe 
should  be  kept  closed 
until  it  is  necessary  to 
admit  the  gasoline  in 
the  reserve  chamber, 
which  holds  one  gallon. 
The  sediment  and  water 
receptacle  (D)  is  shown 
at  the  bottom  of  the 
tank,  which  is  drained 
by  the  valve  E.  There 
is  also  a  shut-off  valve 
in  the  line  to  the  car- 
bureter  (F),  which  should 
be  closed  after  the  day's 
run,  so  as  to  cut  off  the 


AUTOMOBILES  53 


gasoline  supply  from  the  carbureter,  as  the  gasoline  might  overflow 
past  the  needle-valve,  and,  evaporating  into  the  room,  might  cause  a 
vapor  which  would  prove  dangerous  on  striking  a  match. 

Fig.  66  shows  the  gasoline  system  of  the  Peerless  motor-car, 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  giving  a  little  more  detail  than  is  shown  in  the 
previous  figure.  In  this  system  the  filter  and  sediment  catcher  are 
in  the  pipe-line  at  its  lowest  point.  Beyond  this  filter  is  an  addi- 
tional shut-off  valve  in  the  line  to  the  carbureter.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  mixing  chamber  of  the  carbureter  is  surrounded  by  a  water- 
jacket  connected  to  the  regular  water  system.  The  water  coming 
from  the  heated  cylinders  warms  the  mixture. 

Gasoline  Tank.  Water  or  sediment  in  the  gasoline  is  likely  to 
cause  a  great  deal  of  trouble  in  case  it  gets  into  the  pipe-line  or  car- 
bureter. Where  the  gasoline  tank  is  not  provided  with  a  sediment 
drum,  particular  care  needs  to  be  taken  not  to  substitute  a  cork  or 
a  wooden  plug  for  the  metal  cap  of  the  gasoline  tank,  or,  in  case  a 
leak  has  been  repaired,  to  see  that  all  solder  is  cleaned  out.  The 
best  remedy  in  case  the  gasoline  tank  has  no  drum,  is  to  provide  one. 
The  gasoline  intake  leading  to  the  carbureter  leads  from  this  drum, 
which  is  a  small  projecting  cylinder  at  the  bottom  of  the  gasoline 
tank.  The  intake  pipe  should  be  screened,  the  gasoline  rising  up- 
wards through  the  screen.  There  should  be  a  cock  or  plug  at  the 
bottom  of  the  drum,  to  permit  of  the  withdrawal  of  any  water  or  sedi- 
ment that  gathers  there.  Water,  being  heavier  than  gasoline,  sinks 
to  the  bottom  of  the  drum,  and  there  is  thus  no  danger  of  its  getting 
into  the  carbureter.  Another  advantage  is  that  gasoline  will  go  into 
the  drum  up  to  the  last  drop. 

As  soon  as  the  slightest  leak  manifests  itself  in  the  gasoline  tank  or 
line,  it  should  be  attended  to  In  putting  out  a  gasoline  blaze, 
much  more  effective  results  are  obtained  by  throwing  sand  or  dirt 
on  the  fire,  than  from  the  use  of  water.  It  is  advisable  to.  have 
several  buckets  of  sand  or  salt  on  hand  in  an  automobile  garage,  to 
use  in  case  of  emergency.  Leaky  gasoline  pipes  have  been  the  cause 
of  a  number  of  heavy  losses,  and  careful  inspection  of  the  pipe-lines 
should  be  made  regularly. 

Gauge-glasses  on  gasoline  tanks,  while  at  first  sight  appearing 
convenient,  constitute  an  additional  breakable  feature  which  can  be 
dispensed  with,  with  very  little  inconvenience. 


AUTOMOBILES  55 


Grades  of  Gasoline.  What  is  known  as  High-Test  gasoline  is 
a  variety  of  gasoline  which  possesses  certain  advantages  in  industrial 
processes.  For  general  driving  purposes  it  is  not  worth  the  advance 
in  cost.  It  is  easier  of  ignition  than  ordinary  gasoline.  There  is  not 
so  much  heat  in  it,  nor  so  much  mileage,  as  in  ordinary  gasoline.  It 
does,  however,  explode  more  instantaneously,  and  hence  gives  power 
more  quickly.  It  will  not  drive  a  car  so  long  a  distance  as  the  same 
amount  of  ordinary  gasoline. 

Gasoline  is  graded  according  to  its  specific  gravity  expressed 
in  terms  of  the  scale  on  Baume's  hydrometer.  Thus,  gasoline 
graded  at  65  or  85  degrees  means  that  the  hydrometer  would  sink  to 
these  figures  on  the  scale.  Baume's  hydrometer  is  the  instrument 
generally  used  for  testing  specific  gravity.  To  find  the  specific 
gravity,  knowing  the  point  on  the  scale  to  which  the  hydrometer  sinks, 
we  use  the  formula : 

140 

Specific   gravity  =  — — -  — =- — r. — • 

130  +  Hydrometer  Reading 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  higher  the  reading  on  the  hydrometer, 
the  lighter  will  be  the  gasoline.  Ordinary  gasoline  is  about  68  de- 
grees; high-test,  so  called,  is  about  76  degrees. 

It  is  worth  knowing  that  when  the  engine  is  warm  it  will  run  on 
kerosene,  although  it  may  not  start  with  kerosene  when  cold.  Kero- 
sene is  not  good  for  the  spark-plugs,  on  account  of  the  sootiness 
resulting  from  its  use.  But  in  cases  of  emergency  where  gasoline 
cannot  be  purchased  but  kerosene  can  be  found,  the  car  can  be 
run  so  long  as  enough  gasoline  is  kept  to  start  the  engine  and  get 
it  warm. 

Carbureters.  The  relative  proportion  of  gasoline  and  air  to 
give  the  most  effective  explosive  mixture,  is  subject  to  some  variations 
dependent  on  the  weather.  No  fixed  rules  can  be  given  that  will 
apply  to  all  types  of  carbureters.  Hence  it  is  extremely  desirable 
that  the  operator  of  a  car  be  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  principles 
of  operation  and  methods  of  adjustment  of  the  carbureter  on  his  car, 
so  that  he  can  adapt  it  to  varying  conditions  so  as  to  secure  the  most 
effective  results.  The  injunction  "Don't  change  the  adjustment  of 
the  carbureter,"  which  used  to  appear  in  instruction  books,  was  very 
poor  advice,  and  resulted  in  unnecessary  troubles  and  needless  calls 
on  the  repair  shop  on  account  of  carbureter  adjustments. 


56  AUTOMOBILES 


Having  once  adjusted  the  carbureter  for  making  a  proper  mix- 
ture for  a  certain  kind  of  weather,  the  action  of  the  carbureter  itself 
must  be  automatic  in  maintaining  this  mixture  under  all  varying 
conditions  of  engine  speed  and  load.     This  self-regulation  to  main- 
tain   the   proper   mixture,  is  at- 
tempted in  different  ways  in  dif- 
ferent carbureters. 

The  Cadillac  Motor  Car  Com- 
pany, Detroit,  Mich.,  regulates  it 
by  means  of  spring  action  in  a 
carbureter  that  is  very  simple, 
without  any  float-chamber. 

Fig.  67  shows  a  section  of 
this  carbureter.  Its  action  is  as 
follows : 

Fig.  67.    Carbureter  of  Cadillac  Single-  The  air  is  taken  in  at  the  end  of  the 

^^S^SSSSSSSS^  inlet  pipe  K.     The  intake  of  the  air 

Cadillac  Motor  Car  Company ,  Detroit,  Mich.       caused  by  the  suction  of  the  piston  lifts 

the  valveLand  forms  a  partial  vacuum 

at  the  terminal  of  the  gasoline  passage  M,  the  screw  N  being  adjusted  so  as 
to  allow  the  valve  L  to  lift  from  its  seat  just  far  enough  to  admit  the  proper 
amount  of  gasoline  to  form  with  the  in-going  air  the  proper  mixture.  The  ad- 
justing screw  N,  which  regulates  the  amount  of  gasoline,  should  be  adjusted 
only  in  case  of  improper  mixture. 

To  secure  the  greatest  efficiency,  the  mixer  valve  (which  admits 
the  gasoline  into  the  carbureter)  must  open  wider  when  the  engine 
is  running  at  high  speed  than  is  necessary  when  running  at  low 
speed. 

The  method  of 'this  adjustment  is  shown  in  Fig.  68.  When  the 
adjusting  screw  is  located  as  shown  in  A,  the  spring  Q  cannot  act; 
hence  the  adjustment  needs  to  be  changed.  In  Fig.  68,  B  shows 
the  spring  free  to  act  to  its  full  limit.  With  this  adjustment  it  will 
be  found  that  when  the  engine  is  running  at  low  speed,  the  needle- 
valve  moves  so  slowly  that  it  has  not  sufficient  momentum  to  cause 
the  spring  to  yield.  When,  however,  the  speed  increases,  the  volume 
of  air  comes  against  the  diaphragm  of  the  valve  at  a  more  rapid  rate, 
and  causes  the  needle  L  to  strike  against  the  spring  Q  with  such 
force  as  to  make  it  yield,  thus  allowing  the  mixer  valve  L  to  open 
wider  at  this  high  speed  than  it  did  at  low  speed.  Under  these  con- 


AUTOMOBILES 


57 


ditions  there  is  too  much  spring  action,  allowing  the  valve  L  to  open 
too  wide,  and  making  the  mixture  too  rich  at  high  speed. 

In  this  case  the  binder  P  must  be  adjusted  so  as  to  bring  the 
adjusting  screw  N  to  the  position  shown  in  C,  Fig.  68,  giving  less 
spring  action  than  in  B,  and  more  than  in  A.  By  a  little  experiment- 
ing, the  adjusting  screw  can  be  located  in  a  position  where  it  will 
allow  sufficient  spring  action  to  give  the  desired  mixture  at  both 
high  and  low  speeds.  The  adjusting  and  experimenting  should  be 
done  with  the  throttle  wide  open  and  with  the  spark-lever  away 
back,  so  that  firing  does  not  take  place  ahead  of  dead  center. 


Fig.  68.    Showing  Adjustment  of  Spring  Regulating  Cadillac  Carbureter. 
Cadillac  Motor  Car  Company,  Detroit,  Mich, 

The  float-feed  type  of  carbureter  is  very  generally  used;  and  a 
great  many  makes  are  on  the  market,  with  slight  variations. 

Fig.  69  is  a  section  of  this  type  of  carbureter  as  used  by  the 
National  Motor  Vehicle  Company,  of  Indianapolis.  It  is  attached  to 
the  gasoline  inlet  line  at  the  side  of  the  engine,  by  an  S-shaped  brass 
pipe  and  flange.  The  float-chamber  B  of  the  carbureter  contains 
a  float  F,  which  float  actuates  the  gasoline  inlet  valve  H  by  means 
of  the  float-lever  I  hinged  at  /.  As  the  float-chamber  fills  with  gaso- 
line admitted  through  the  inlet  valve  from  the  pipe-line  leading  to 
the  gasoline  tank,  the  float  rises  until  it  reaches  a  predetermined 
level,  at  which  time  it  closes  the  inlet  valve  H  through  the  action  of 
the  lever  7.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  connection  to  the  gasoline 
tank  is  normally  closed  until  the  gasoline  level  falls  sufficiently  to 
cause  the  float  to  drop  and  operate  the  lever,  thus  permitting  more 
gasoline  to  enter  the  chamber  B  until  the  normal  level  is  again  re- 
stored. The  suction  of  the  piston  during  the  admission  stroke  of  the 
engine  creates  a  partial  vacuum  in  the  entire  admission  line,  and 
this  suction  draws  the  gasoline  through  the  spraying  nozzle  D.  The 


58 


AUTOMOBILES 


amount  of  gasoline  passing  through  the  nozzle  is  regulated  by  the 
needle-valve  lever  E.  The  gasoline  jet  from  the  nozzle  passes  into 
the  mixing  chamber  C.  The  quantity  of  air  entering  into  the  mixing 
chamber  is  controlled  by  the  compressing  air-valve  A  adjusted  against 
the  spiral  spring  0  by  means  of  the  adjusting  screw  M. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  mixture  can  be  regulated  as  to  quan- 
tity both  of  gasoline  and  of  air,  each  being  independently  regulated. 
The  quantity  of  mixture  which  goes  to  the  engine  is  controlled 
by  the  throttle-valve  K ,  which  is  simply  a  metal  disc  turned  by  means 

of  the  lever  P,  to 
which  is  attached 
the  rod  system 
leading  to  the  op- 
erator at  the  front 
seat.  • 

The  proper 
mixture  is  ob- 
tained by  adjust- 
ing the  needle- 
valve  E,  which 
need  be  opened 
but  slightly — usu- 
ally only  about 
three-fourths  of  a 

Ficr.  69.    Float-Feed  Type  of  Carbureter,  with  Hand  Regulation  T  „       ,          . 

of  Gasoline  at  E  and  of  Air  at  M.  turn.    If,  when  the 

National  Motor  Vehicle  Company,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

cylinder  relief- 
cocks  are  opened,  black  smoke  and  flame  are  observed,  the  mix- 
ture is  too  rich.  After  a  bluish  flame  has  been  obtained,  and  the 
firing  is  regular,  open  the  throttle-valve  gradually.  If  the  engine 
runs  at  low  speed  and  fires  regularly,  but  misses  on  high  speed, 
tighten  the  tension  on  spring  behind  automatic  air-valve,  by  screw- 
ing in  the  adjusting  screw  M  until  the  engine  fires  regularly  on  all 
speeds  and  no  black  smoke  is  seen  coming  out  of  the  exhaust. 

Flooding  of  the  carbureter  will  be  indicated  by  the  stopping 
of  the  engine  when  running,  or  by  the  gasoline  running  out  of  the 
carbureter  when  the  engine  is  standing  still,  and  is  due  to  the  float 
sticking  and  its  not  closing  the  inlet  valve  to  the  carbureter  H.  This 
can  be  remedied  by  taking  off  the  carbureter  after  shutting  off  the 


AUTOMOBILES  59 


gasoline  by  closing  the  cock  below  the  tank.  Remove  the  top  of  the 
carbureter,  which  shows  the  float  to  view.  Its  sticking  is  usually  due 
to  its  binding  on  one  side,  it  not  being  central.  This  can  be  remedied 
by  loosening  the  screw  in  the  center  of  the  float,  and  moving  the  cork 
slightly  to  one  side  or  the  other. 

Obstruction  of  the  needle- valve  of  the  carbureter  will  cause 
stopping  of  the  engine*  or  refusal  to  start.  This  is  remedied  by 
taking  off  the  carbureter  as  above,  and  unscrewing  the  needle  of  the 
needle-valve,  and  then  blowing  through  the  valve.  Such  obstruction 
is  generally  caused  by  there  being  some  particles  of  dirt  in  the 
gasoline. 

Sometimes,  if  the  car  slows  down  from  this  cause,  releasing  the 
clutch  and  opening  the  throttle,  allowing  the  engine  to  race  for  just 
a  moment,  it  will  draw  this  dirt  out  of  the  needle-valve.  The  disad- 
vantage of  this  method  is  that  the  dirt  is  sucked  into  the  engine 
cylinder,  helping  to  score  the  cylinder  by  just  that  much. 

In  cold  weather,  water  in  the  gasoline  will  freeze  in  the  car- 
bureter unless  the  carbureter  is  of  the  water- jacketed  type  employed 
in  some  cars.  An  almost  imperceptible  amount  of  water  can  cause 
this  trouble,  which  can  be  detected  by  popping  in  the  carbureter  and 
perceptible  cutting  down  of  power  of  the  engine,  which  acts  as  if  tne 
needle-valve  of  the  carbureter  were  set  for  too  little  gasoline.  When 
there  is  considerable  water  in  the  gasoline,  it  will  stop  the  car  entirely. 
This  can  be  remedied  by  opening  the  cock  at  the  bottom  of  the  car- 
bureter; and  as  the  water  is  heavier  than  gasoline,  it  will  drain  out 
first.  The  cock  directly  under  the  gasoline  tank  should  also  be 
opened  for  a  few  seconds.  If  there  is  any  suspicion  about  the  gaso- 
line in  the  tank  having  any  water  in  it,  it  should  be  filtered  through 
chamois  skin. 

Compensating  Carbureters.  The  faster  the  engine  speed,  th 
greater  will  be  the  suction  in  the  carbureter  pipe,  hence  the  greater 
the  amount  of  gasoline  drawn  in.  This  will  result  in  too  rich  a  mix- 
ture for  satisfactory  operation.  To  provide  for  this,  carbureters  of 
the  compensating  type  have  a  by-pass,  as  shown  in  Fig.  70.  As 
the  throttle-valve  is  opened  wider,  the  by-pass  valve  gradually  opens 
also,  so  that  extra  air  is  furnished  the  mixture,  thus  diluting  it  as  the 
engine  speeds  up,  and  maintaining  it  at  proper  quality  for  all  con- 
ditions of  running. 


AUTOMOBILES 


Proper  Mixture  of  Gasoline  and  Air.  If  the  mixture  is  too  weak 
in  gasoline,  the  running  will  be  affected.  Explosions  will  be  missed. 
If  the  mixture  is  too  strong,  the  engine  will  fail  to  speed  up.  The 
action  will  be  sluggish.  It  will  not  pull. 

If  the  mixture  is  too  rich,  one  can  tell  it  from  the  presence  of 
explosions  in  the  muffler;  from  the  very  dense  smoke,  which  is  black; 
and  from  the  sluggish  action  of  the  engine.  Smoke  caused  by  too 


Fig.  70.    Carbureter  of  Compensating  Type,  Admitting  Increased  Supply  of  Air 

as  Speed  of  Engine  Increases. 
H.  H.  Franklin  Manufacturing  Company,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

much  oil  is  blue,  entirely  different  from  the  smoke  caused  by  too 
much  gasoline. 

In  the  case  of  a  weak  mixture,  if  it  fires  at  all,  it  will  make  a  pop 
in  the  carbureter,  caused  by  the  fact  that  a  weak  mixture  will  light 
readily  in  open  air,  but  will  not  light  well  under  compression.  Pop- 
ping back  in  the  carbureter  is  caused  by  late  spark  or  weak  mixture. 
An  engine  with  a  very  high  compression  will  require  a  richer  mixture 
than  one  having  less  compression. 


AUTOMOBILES  61 


Textbooks  on  gasoline  engines  usually  make  the  statement  that 
gasoline  will  ignite  in  a  range  of  mixtures  varying  from  one  part  by 
weight  of  gasoline  to  eight  of  air,  up  to  as  weak  a  mixture  as  one  of 
gasoline  to  sixteen  of  air.  However,  there  is  no  gauge  about  the 
automobile  or  carbureter  by  which  one  can  gauge  the  relative  weight. 
The  only  way  to  determine  what  is  a  proper  mixture  is  by  observing 
closely  the  action  of  the  engine,  supplying  sufficient  gasoline  until 
indications  of  a  rich  mixture  show  themselves,  as  indicated  above. 
Then  slightly  diminish  the  gasoline,  until  the  condition  of  best  run- 
ning is  secured. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  CONNECTING  AND  ADJUSTING  A  CARBURETER 

TO  A  MOTOR 

1.  Connect  to  the  intake  pipe  on  motor,  as  close  to  inlet  valve  as  con- 
venient, provided  the  motor  does  not  overheat.     The  carbureter  should  not 
be  placed  where  it  will  get  hot,  as  this  would  change  the  quality  of  the  mixture; 
but  the  closer  you  connect  the  carbureter  to  the  inlet  yalve,  the  quicker  the 
motor  will  respond  to  the  throttle. 

2.  Great  caution  should  be  used  to  avoid  traps  or  pockets  of  any  de- 
scription in  pipe  between  carbureter  and  motor,  or  at  low  speed  the  fuel  will 
condense  and  settle  in  such  traps,  and  when  the  throttle  is  open  for  high  speed 
the  increased  velocity  of  air  through  pipe  will  pick  up  this  accumulation  of 
fuel  and  cause  smoke  and  trouble  until  pipe  is  clean. 

3.  Connect  gasoline  fuel  to  float-cup,  with  head  enough  to  fill  the  cup. 
It  is  best  to.  use  brass  pipe  and  fittings  for  gasoline,  if  convenient,  as  iron  pipe 
is  liable  to  rust  and  scale,  which  may  clog  inlet  valve  to  carbureter  and  cause 
trouble. 

4.  Arrangements  should  be  made  to  filter  or  strain  all  gasoline  when 
filling  tank,  as  it  is  very  sure  to  contain  some  dirt  or  foreign  substance  col- 
lected from  cans  and  barrels  in  handling. 

5.  When  float-chamber  is  filled,  screw  needle-point  down  to  seat;  set 
the  throttle  very  nearly  closed  for  low  speed;  open  needle  about  one-eighth 
of  a  turn;  then  try  the  motor  with  igniter  in  good  working  condition.     When 
the  motor  starts,  change  the  adjusting  screw  until  you  get  a  perfect  mixture 
at  low  speed  and  no  smoke  (be  sure  you  have  it  right  at  low  speed);  then  lock 
adjusting  screw  in  position  with  clamp. 

6.  Open  the  throttle  by  lever,  and  the  motor  will  speed  up  under  the 
proper  mixture.     Throttle  may  now  be  opened  or  closed  at  will,  and  no  further 
adjustment  will  be  required,  except  perhaps  for  a  change  of  fuel. 

7.  Do  not  try  to  start  your  motor  with  the  throttle  wide  open  when 
you  have  an  adjustment  for  low  speed;  but  start  it  with  throttle  closed  for  low 
speed,  which  you  can  do  very  easily,  as  you  can  turn  it  at  about  the  slow- 
running  speed  yourself,  while,  if  you  were  to  start  with  the  throttle  wide  open, 
it  might  be  necessary  to  flush  the  carbureter  in  order  to  get  the  fuel  rich  enough 
to  start  with  at  the  speed  you  would  be  able  to  turn  it  over.     This  is  why 


62  AUTOMOBILES 


nearly  all  float-feed  carbureters  have  to  be  flushed   for  starting;  they  have 
no  slowrspeed  adjustment. 

8.  On  a  motor  controlled  by  throttle,  the  spring  on  the  exhaust  valve 
should  be  made  stronger  than  is  necessary  with  a  motor  drawing  a  full  charge 
at  all  times;  otherwise  the  partial  vacuum  created  in  the  cylinder  at  low  speed, 
owing  to  the  light  charge  admitted,  may  unseat  the  exhaust  valve  and  dilute 
the  charge. 

Sometimes  water  gets  into  the  carbureter,  and  its  contents  must 
then  be  emptied.  This  is  a  point  worth  remembering  in  starting  a 
car  that  has  been  standing  in  a  heavy  rain. 

Sometimes  the  float  will  stick  in  the  carbureter,  and  then  needs 
to  be  cleaned. 

A  carbureter  should  be  used  that  has  a  drain-cock  for  taking 
out  water. 

It  is  very  advantageous  to  have  hot  air  for  the  air-intake.  This 
is  provided  for  by  having  the  air-intake  pipe  end  in  a  wide-flared 
mouthpiece  close  to  the  hot  exhaust  pipe  of  the  engine. 

Leaky  Float=Valves.  There  is  neither  sense  nor  profit  in  neg- 
lecting to  keep  the  float-valve  of  the  carbureter  tight.  The  effect  of 
a  leaky  valve  may  not  be  very  marked  in  cold  weather  as  regards  the 
quality  of  the  mixture;  but  in  warm  weather,  when  the  gasoline 
evaporates  more  readily,  the  leaking  may  make  the  mixture  so  rich 
as  to  make  it  impossible  to  start  the  motor  unless  the  gasoline  is 
turned  off  at  the  tank  immediately  on  stopping.  The  best  thing  with 
which  to  grind-in  the  float-valve  is  pumice-stone.  Emery  is  too 
hard,  and  it  imbeds  itself  in  the  stem  or  seat  of  the  valve,  making 
trouble  later  on. 


AUTOMOBILES 

PART  II 


IGNITION  SYSTEMS 

As  the  result  of  many  years  of  experimenting  with  various  sys- 
tems of  ignition  of  the  explosive  vapor  in  gas  engines,  the  following 
conclusions  have  been  definitely  reached: 

A  single  spark  is  not  reliable  enough  to  be  depended  on.  The  explosive 
mixture  sometimes  fails  to  ignite  from  the  first  spark,  and  the  ignition  spreads 
slowly.  Hence  the  aim  of  the  most  reliable  devices  on  the  market  is  to  pro- 
duce a  series  of  very  rapidly  recurring  fat  sparks  of  high  electromotive  force, 
continuing  through  a  period  of  time  representing  from  five  to  ten  degrees 
angular  rotation  of  the  fly-wheel,  with  devices  for  changing  the  period  of 
sparking  time  so  that  it  occurs  earlier  or  later  in  the  mechanical  cycle  of  the 
engine — that  is,  earlier  or  later  in  the  stroke.  (Really  the  igniting  period  is 
usually  at  the  end  of  the  compression  stroke,  with  adjustment  making  it  pos- 
sible to  transfer  part  or  all  of  it  past  the  dead  center  or  a  little  after  the  begin- 
ning of  the  pressure  or  explosion  stroke). 

DRY-CELL  AND  JUMP-SPARK  SYSTEM  OF  IGNITION 

The  simplest  ignition  system,  and  the  one  in  general  use  on 
light  runabouts,  is  the  Dry-Cell  and  Jump-Spark  System.  A  dia- 
gram of  this  system  is  shown  in  Fig.  71,  which  shows  the  ignition 
system  of  the  Cadillac  single-cylinder  automobile. 

In  the  center  of  the  diagram  are  shown  two  sets  or  batteries 
of  dry  cells,  aaaa  and  bbbb.  Two  sets  of  dry  cells  are  used,  simply 
so  that  if  one  set  grows  weak  the  other  set  may  be  put  into  service. 
Care  must  be  taken  in  re-wiring  to  see  that  the  current  flows  in  the 
same  direction  in  each  battery,  This  can  be  determined  by  tracing 
the  direction  in  which  the  current  should  flow.  Taking  for  instance 
the  diagram,  when  the  switch  F  is  closed  in  either  direction,  it  com- 
pletes an  electrical  circuit  between  one  terminal  of  either  battery  and 
the  metal  frame  of  the  car,  as  terminal  F  of  the  switch  is  electrically 
connected  by  a  wire  to  the  metal  frame  of  the  car.  The  commutator 
P  has  also  one  terminal  electrically  connected  to  the  frame  of  the 
car.  Following  the*  current  now,  starting  at  aaaa,  it  flows  through 


64 


AUTOMOBILES 


H,  and  through  the  closed  blade  of 
the  switch  F-,  thence  through  the 
metal  frame  of  the  car  to  the  com- 
mutator; and  at  such  time  as  the 
metal  contact  of  the  commutator 
is  closed,  it  passes  from  the  com- 
mutator through  the  spark-coil  or 
vibrator,  entering  at  L  and  leaving 
at  K.  This  completes  what  is 
known  as  the  primary  circuit.  The 
reason  it  is  called  the  primary  cir- 
cuit is  that  terminals  L  and  K  in  the 
spark-coil  are  connected  to  the 
primary  winding  of  the  spark-coil. 
Wires  A  and  B  complete  a  circuit 
between  the  secondary  winding  of 
the  spark-coil  and  the  spark-plug 
E. 

At  L  on  the  coil,  there  is  a  mag- 
netic circuit  maker  and  breaker, 
called  the  trembler  or  vibrator,  which, 
when  properly  adjusted,  makes  and 
breaks  the  circuit  through  the  pri- 
mary winding  of  the  coil,  so  long 
as  the  primary  circuit  is  complete 
everywhere  else.  The  action  of  the 
vibrator  is  continuous;  that  is,  if 
the  engine  is  not  in  motion  and  the 
battery  circuit  is  closed,  by  closing 
the  switch  and  bringing  the  metallic 
part  of  the  commutator  into  con- 
tact with  the  circuit,  there  will  be 
an  uninterrupted  humming  of  the 
coil.  As  soon  as  the  engine  is 
started,  however,  the  make  and 
break  of  the  commutator,  which  is 
mechanically  driven  by  the  engine, 
causes  intervals  in  the  period  of 


AUTOMOBILES 


65 


humming,  which  then  takes  place  only  during  the  ignition  period. 

The  interrupted  flow  through  the  primary  circuit,  and  through 
the  primary  coil  of  the  spark-coil,  causes  an  induced  electrical  cur- 
rent to  pass  through  the  secondary  winding  of  the  coil.  This  sec- 
ondary winding  is  of  much  finer  wire  than  the  primary,  and  has  a 
great  many  more  turns.  The  result  is  that  the  induced  electromo- 
tive force  in  the  secondary  coil  is  as  many  times  higher  than  that  of 
the  primary  as  the  ratio  between  the  number  of  turns  of  wire  on 
the  coils.  Every  time  there  is  a 
break  in  the  primary  circuit  due 
to  the  action  of  the  trembler  in 
that  circuit,  an  induced  electro- 
motive force  of  high  pressure  is 
set  up  in  the  secondary-coil  sys- 
tem. This  secondary  electromo- 
tive force  is  so  powerful  that  a 
small  gap  may  be  left  in  the  sec- 
ondary circuit  and  still  the  elec- 
tric current  will  pulsate  through 
the  secondary  winding,  causing  a 
spark  to  occur  at  the  break.  The 
wires  of  the  secondary  circuit 
must  be  thoroughly  and  heavily 
insulated,  as  they  convey  an  elec- 
tromotive force  of  several  thou- 
sand volts  pressure.  The  small 
gap  above  referred  to  is  placed 
inside  the  cylinder,  and  is  contained  in  the  spark-plug. 

Action  of  Vibrator.  Fig.  72  is  a  diagram  explaining  the  action 
of  the  vibrator  or  trembler — namely,  the  humming  part  of  the  spark- 
coil.  P  is  one  terminal  of  the  primary  circuit.  From  P  a  shunted 
circuit  leads  to  the  magnet  terminal  M,  around  the  magnet,  to  the 
other  magnet  terminal  IP;  thence  through  the  armature  spring  to 
the  contact-screw  (7,  which  is  connected  to  the  other  post  Pf  of  the 
primary-coil  circuit.  The  regular  primary  circuit  through  the  primary 
coil  is  indicated  by  P  C. 

As  soon  as  the  primary  circuit  is  closed  by  the  commutator  E, 
the  magnet  in  the  circuit  MM'  becomes  magnetized,  drawing  down 


Fig.  72.    Diagram  Showing  Action 
of  Vibrator  or  Trembler. 


66  AUTOMOBILES 


the  soft  iron  piece  fastened  to  the  spring,  which  has  also  served  as  a 
conductor  between  D  and  C.  As  soon  as  the  spring  is  drawn  down, 
the  circuit  through  the  magnet  is  broken;  and  the  magnet  being 
demagnetized,  the  mechanical  return  action  of  the  spring  draws  it 
back  again.  As  soon  as  it  has  sprung  back  far  enough  to  touch  the 
point  of  the  contact-screw  C,  the  original  action  is  repeated.  It  will  be 
noted,  therefore,  that  the  rapidity  of  action  of  the  make-and-break 
mechanism  depends  on  the  adjustment  of  the  spring  and  contact-screw. 
Adjustment  of  Spark=Coil.  The  faulty  adjustment  of  a  spark- 
coil  is  apt  to  cause  a  great  deal  of  trouble.  Among  the  troubles 

which  may  be  caused  are:  Short  life  of 
batteries,  burned  contacts  of  the  coil,  and 
poor  running  of  the  engine.  The  color  of 
the  spark  at  the  length  of  TV  inch  should 
be  a  bluish  purple.  With  an  accurate 
adjustment,  this  characteristic  color  will 
be  in  evidence.  In  making  adjustments, 
remove  first  the  vibrator  contact-screw  C. 
Then  adjust  the  vibrator  spring  so  that 
the  hammer  or  piece  of  iron  on  the  end  of 
this  spring  stands  normally  about  TV  incn 
from  the  end  of  the  coil.  Then  insert  the 

Fig.  73.    Dasb  Coil  for  One- 

cyiind^Engine.  cover       contact-screw  C,  and  screw  it  in  until  it 

TheSNew^lriacii?yatory'      Just  touches  the  platinum  contact  on  the 

vibrator  spring.     Be  sure  that  it  touches 

only  very  lightly.  •  Screw  down  the  spring-adjusting  screw  D 
until,  wlien  the  circuit  is  closed,  the  vibrator  rings  with  a  high- 
pitch  tone.  Then  start  the  engine.  Then  gradually  release  the 
spring-adjusting  screw  and  contact-screw  until  that  cylinder  begins 
to  miss  fire.  Then  tighten  up  both  screws  just  a  trifle  at  a  time, 
until  the  engine  will  run  without  missing  explosions. 

It  is  common  practice  to  ad  just -vibrators  so  that  the  spring  gives 
a  high,  clear  tone,  and  to  draw  the  longest  possible  spark.  This 
practice  is  extremely  wasteful  of  battery  force;  and  since  it  increases 
the  tension  of  the  current  passing  through  the  vibrators,  the  platinum 
contacts  wear  out  rapidly,  causing  them  to  stick  and  the  engine  to 
miss  fire.  A  happy  medium  can  be  learned  by  careful  observation 
while  adjusting  the  screws. 


AUTOMOBILES 


67 


Figs.  73,  74,  and  75  illustrate  typical  spark-coils.  Fig.  73  shows 
a  Splitdorf  dash  coil  for  a  one-cylinder  engine,  the  cover  being  re- 
moved; Fig.  74 
shows  a  dash  coil 
of  the  same  make 
for  a  two-cylinder 
engine,  one  of  the 
units  being  re- 
moved from  case; 
and  Fig.  75  shows 
a  Splitdorf  three- 
cylinder  dash  coil, 
also  with  cover  re- 
moved. 

Fig.  76  shows 
the  principles  in- 

i      j  •      , ,  •         Fig.  74.    Dash  Coil  for  Two-Cylinder  Engine.    Cover  Removed. 

VOlved  in  the  Wir-  Also  note  removable  unit. 

„  .      ,  The  Splitdorf  Laboratory.  New  York  City. 

ing  of  a  typical 
two- cylinder  en- 
gine using  dry-cell 
and  spark-coil  ig- 
nition. A  and  B 
are  two  batteries, 
each  consisting  of 
three  cells.  The 
three  cells  of  each 
group  are  con- 
nected in  series.  C 
is  the  spark  timer 
or  commutator, 
which  is  controlled 
by  the  spark-lever 
so  that  the  spark- 
ing may  be  made  to  occur  earlier  or  later  during  the  stroke  of  the  pis- 
ton. The  shaft  shown  at  D  on  the  diagram  is  really  the  shaft  E.  Since 
the  commutator  is  actually  attached  to  the  motor,  it  is  shown  sepa- 
rately in  the  diagram  for  clearness  in  showing  the  wiring  connections. 
F  is  grounded  to  the  motor  frame,  while  G  and  H  are  both  insulated 


Fig.  75.    Dash  Coil  for  Three-Cylinder  Engine. 
The  Splitdorf  Laboratory,  New  York  City. 


68 


AUTOMOBILES 


from  the  motor  frame.  By  the  rotation  of  shaft  D,  which  carries 
the  commutator,  the  current  is  first  permitted  to  flow  between  F  and 
G  when  these  two  terminals  are  brought  into  contact  by  friction  with 
the  metallic  periphery  of  the  commutator.  As  the  commutator 
continues  to  revolve,  the  fiber  portion  of  the  periphery  advances 
between.  F  and  G,  breaking  the  circuit  between  those  two  terminals. 

, Meanwhile   metallic   circuit  has 

been  established  between  F  and 
H.  From  these  points  current 
flows  through  the  spark-coil,  and 
sparks  are  caused  alternately  in 
the  spark-plugs  K  and  L.  The 
switch  key  N  shown  in  the  center 
of  the  diagram  is  located  on  the 
dash.  It  will  be  seen  by  the  con- 
nections, that  either  one  or  the 
other  battery  of  dry  cells  may  be 
connected  at  will.  When  the 
switch  key  is  in  the  position 
shown,  the  battery  B  is  in  use; 
and  when  the  switch  key  is  over 
P,  the  battery  A  is  in  use. 

When  it  is  desired  to  leave  the 
car,  or  to  use  the  engine  com- 
pression as  a  brake,  the  switch  key  is  either  removed  or  placed  in  the 
middle  or  neutral  position,  and  the  electrical  circuit  is  broken,  so 
that  no  spark  will  occur,  and  hence  the  motor  cannot  be  started  until 
the  key  is  replaced. 

Wires  Q  and  R  connect  the  spark-plugs  to  the  secondary  or  high- 
tension  winding  of  the  spark-coil,  and  are  heavily  insulated. 

Fig.  77  is.  a  wiring  diagram  for  a  four-cylinder  engine,  which  is 
provided  not  only  with  dry  cells  but  also  with  a  storage  battery. 
Otherwise  the  connections  and  operation  are  like  the  systems  already 
explained  for  one-cylinder  and  two-cylinder  engines  respectively. 

DIRECT-CURRENT  SHUNT-WOUND  DYNAMO  SYSTEM 

Dynamos  for  Charging  Batteries  for  Ignition.  For  the  pur- 
pose of  utilizing  the  power  of  the  gasoline  engine  to  charge  the  storage 


Fig.  76.    Wiring  Diagram  for  Two-Cylinder 

Engine  Using  Dry-Cell  and  Spark-Coil 

System  for  Ignition. 


AUTOMOBILES 


69 


Distributor 


A 

/ 

C 

\ 

0=j=0            0 

Ground  Mre 

Storage  Battery 


Fig.  77.    Wiring  Diagram  for  Four-Cylinder  Engine  Using 

Spark-Coil  in  Connection  with  Dry  Cells  and 

Storage  Battery  for  Ignition. 


batteries  used  for  ignition,  there  are  several  makes  of  direct-current 
dynamos  on  the  market.  These  dynamos  are  driven  either  by  a 
belt  from  some  moving  shaft;  or  by  a  gear  mounted  on  the  com- 
mutator shaft  of  the  gasoline  engine,  meshing  with  a  gear  on  the 
armature  shaft  of  the  little  dynamo;  or  by  meshing  of  the  gear  on 
the  dynamo  shaft  with  teeth  cut  into  the  engine  fly-wheel.  The  con- 
nection should  never  be  made  by  the  use  of  thin  gear  rings  screwed 
onto  the  engine 
fly-wheel,  as  the 
centrifugal  force 
when  the  engine 
races  for  even  a 
few  revolutions  is 
apt  to  burst  the 
gear  rims  at  the 
thin  part. 

As  the  speed 
of  any  shaft  driven 
by  the  gasoline 
engine  will  be  variable,  such  dynamos  require  governors  to  regulate 
their  armature  speed  so  that  it  will  be  kept  constant  no  matter 
what  the  speed  of  the  driving  shaft  is. 

All  dynamos  have  a  certain  speed  at  which  they  generate  their 
normal  voltage  and  current.  This  speed  cannot  be  exceeded  with- 
out danger  of  burning  up  the  insulation  of  the  machine  by  its  own 
excessive  current,  or  damaging  its  running  parts.  Moreover,  an 
increased  voltage  is  very  damaging  to  the  entire  ignition  system, 
particularly  the  storage-battery  cells;  hence  it  is  very  important  that 
a  small  voltmeter  be  connected  in  the  circuit  at  all  times  when  a 
charging  dynamo  is  on  the  car,  and  that  this  voltmeter  be  kept  in 
sight  so  that  any  faulty  action  of  the  speed  governor  of  the  little 
dynamo  may  be  at  once  detected. 

This  system  also  requires  a  means  of  automatically  disconnecting 
the  dynamo  from  the  battery  as  soon  as  the  engine  stops,  so  as  to 
prevent  the  battery  current  running  back  through  the  dynamo.  The 
current  for  ignition  is  taken  from  the  storage  battery  at  all  times. 
Fig.  78  shows  the  connections  for  this  system. 

Fig.  79  shows  a  shunt-wound  dynamo  with  its  speed  governor. 


70 


AUTOMOBILES 


MAGNETO  SYSTEMS 

The  most  troublesome  features  of  the  shunt- wound  constant- 
current  dynamo  are  speed  regulation  and  constant  attention  to  proper 

voltage.  Hence 
there  has  been  a 
tendency  to  dis- 
pense with  charg- 
ing the  storage 
battery  while  run- 
ning— which  is  the 
real  advantage  of 
the  shunt-wound 
dynamo — and  to 
use  instead  a  mag- 
neto. The  mag- 
neto cannot  be 
used  for  charging 
batteries,  owing  to 
the  irregularity  of 
its  uncommutated 
or  very  roughly 
commutated  elec- 
tromotive force. 
The  magneto  may 
be  either  alterna- 
ting-current or  di- 
rect-current. In 
the  latter  case, 
there  is  no  attempt 
as  a  rule  at  more 
than  one  commu- 
tation, for  the  rea- 


Battery  Cftarye 


Fig.  78.    Connections  for  Direct-Current  Shunt- Wound 

Dynamo  System  of  Ignition  and  Charging 

Storage  Battery. 


Pig.  79.    Direct-Current  Shunt- Wound  Dynamo  Driven  by 

Gasoline  Engine  in  Car  and  Used  for  Charging 

Storage  Battery. 


son  that  it  is  de- 
sired to  have  the  peak  of  the  electromotive  wave  curve  occur  reg- 
ularly in  unison  with  the  engine  speed,  that  is,  the  impulses  gener- 
ated by  the  magneto  must  be  made  to  coincide  with  the  times  at 
which  the  sparking  must  take  place.  This  is  accomplished  by 
gearing  the  magneto  to  the  engine  cam-shaft. 


AUTOMOBILES 


71 


As  above  stated,  the  magneto  cannot  be  used  for  charging  stor- 
age batteries  or  for  furnishing  current  for  electric  lights,  both  of  which 
can  be  accomplished  with  the  shunt-wound  dynamo  system.  The 
only  purpose  for  which  the  magneto  can  be  used  is  for  the  ignition  of 
the  charge  in  the  engine  cylinders;  and  it  is  satisfactory  for  this 
purpose  only  when  the  engine  is  running  at  full  speed.  Hence  an 
auxiliary  battery  and  spark-coil  system  must  be  used  for  starting 
or  at  very  slow  speed  of  the  engine.  The  magneto  is  a  dynamo 
which  can  be  built  much  more  cheaply  than  a  shunt-wound  dynamo 
with  speed  governor,  and  can  be  built  so  small  that  it  takes  up  much 
less  room. 

The  simplest 
magneto  system  is 
one  which  uses  the 
same  spark-coil 
for  magneto  and 
batteries.  Fig.  80 
shows  the  connec- 
tions for  this  sys- 
tem. 

A  high-ten- 
sion or  high-volt- 
age magneto  will 
generate  a  spark 

of  sufficient  intensity  to  ignite  the  charge  at  the  spark-coil.  The  ten- 
dency however  is  to  use  a  low-tension  magneto  and  an  independent 
spark-coil  without  trembler,  for  ignition  at  regular  running  speed  of 
the  engine;  and  a  battery  and  spark-coil  with  trembler  for  starting 
and  emergency.  This  method  provides  at  all  times  two  independent 
ignition  systems,  and  preserves  the  spark-coil  with  trembler  so  that  it 
has  a  longer  life  than  when  it  is  used  all  the  time. 

Fig.  81  is  a  diagram  of  this  system  as  used  by  the  National  Motor 
Vehicle  Company.  The  magneto  has  its  own  distributor  or  com- 
mutator attached  to  it;  a  magneto  coil  is  placed  in  the  same  box  as 
the  storage  battery;  1,  2,  3,  and  4  are  the  lines  to  the  spark-plugs  in 
the  four  engine  cylinders. 

One  pole  of  the  magneto  is  grounded  to  the  frame;  and  the  other 
terminal  comes  out  at  the  rear  of  the  magneto  on  a  copper  brush,  and 


Fig.  80.    Connections  for  Magneto  System  of  Ignition. 

Magneto  Current  or  Battery  Current  Using 

Same  Spark-Coil. 


72 


AUTOMOBILES 


is  led  by  a  cable  through  the  switch  on  the  dash  (when  thrown  to  the 
right),  to  the  primary  winding  of  the  magneto  coil,  and  from 
there  through  the  circuit-breaker  on  front  of  magneto  to  ground  on 
the  frame,  thus  completing  the  primary  or  low-tension  circuit  of  the 
magneto.  The  high-tension  current  goes  from  the  secondary  wind- 
ing in  the  coil  into  the  distributor  on  the  magneto,  whence  it  is  dis- 
tributed to  the  four  spark-plugs. 

The  second  system,  which  is   the  one   for  emergency  and   for 
starting  the  engine,  consists  of  a  three-cell  six-volt  storage  battery; 


Fig.  81.    Magneto,  Spark-Coil,  and  Storage-Battery  System  of  Ignition. 
National  Motor  Vehicle  Company,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

a  single  vibrator  coil;  a  distributor  or  commutator,  located  on 
the  vertical  shaft  at  rear  of  engine;  and  the  set  of  spark-plugs. 
In  this  system  the  current  goes  from  the  positive  terminal  of 
the  battery  (the  negative  terminal  being  grounded  to  the  frame), 
through  the  primary  winding  and  vibrator  of  the  coil  on  dash,  and 
from  there  through  the  circuit-breaker  located  in  the  bottom  of  the 
distributor,  and  thence  to  ground  on  engine.  The  high-tension 
current  comes  from  the  secondary  winding  of  the  battery  coil  to  the 
distributor,  whence  it  is  distributed  to  the  four  spark-plugs.  Each 
system  has  its  own  set  of  spark-plugs.  To  operate  this  system, 
the  plug  must  be  placed  in  the  left  hole  in  the  battery  coil.  The 


AUTOMOBILES 


73 


same  spark-lever  controls  the  action  of  both  systems.  Ignition  re- 
sponds more  instantaneously  with  the  magneto  system,  so  that  it 
will  appear  to  be  timed  ahead  of  the  battery  system. 

The  principal 
precaution  to  be 
observed  in  con- 
nection with  the 
magneto,  is  to  take 
care  to  prevent 
spattering  of  water 
on  it  when  the  car 
is  being  washed, 
to  oil  it  carefully 
and  regularly,  and 
to  see  that  none 
of  its  fastening 
screws  become 
loose.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  see 
that  all  wiring 
connections  are 
tight,  and  that 
distributors  are 
kept  clean.  Mag- 
neto brushes  must 
not  be  flooded  with 
oil,  as  they  will  be- 
come gummy  and 


Magneto  of  Locomobile  Car.    Armature  Shown  at  Right, 

Withdrawn  from  Magneto.    Bronze  Cap  at  Left 

Encloses  Contact  End  of  Magneto. 


Sectional  View  of  Magneto  (Magnets  Only  Partly  Shown). 

Fig.  82.  Magneto  and  Parts  as  Used  in  Locomobile  Car. 
A— Oiler;  B— Bearing  Oiler;  C— Bearing  Oiler  Spring;  D— 
Bearing  Oiler  Wick;  E— Taper  Pin  Holding  Coupling  on  Arma- 
ture Shaft;  /P— Armature  Shaft;  G— Driving-Shaft  Coupling; 
//—Armature;  /—Brush;  J— Brush  Spring;  K—  Magneto  Ter- 
minal; £ -^Bearing  Capj  M— Contact  Plunger  Socket  Cap;  N— 


Contact  Plunger;  O— Plunger  Spring;    P—  Bearing  Cap  Insu- 
lating Bushing;    <>— Armature  Contact  Stud;    E— Armature 
Terminal;  S—  Armature  Flange  Insulation  Plate;  T—  Arma- 
CaUSC    irregular       ture  Shaft  Insulation  Bushing. 

Locomobile  Company  of  America,  Bridgeport,  Conn. 

firing. 

Fig.  82  shows  in  detail  a  typical  magneto  and  its  parts,  as  used 
in  the  Locomobile. 

SPARK-PLUGS 

The  spark-plug  consists  simply  of  a  receptacle  for  the  purpose 
of  bringing  closely  together  the  two  exposed  parts  in  the  secondary 
line  of  the  spark-coil,  across  which  exposed  parts  it  is  proposed  to  have 
the  spark  take  place.  Inasmuch  as  the  voltage,  as  already  explained, 
is  very  high,  the  chief  qualification  of  the  spark-plug  is  that  it  must 


74 


AUTOMOBILES 


Fig.  83.    Splitdorf  Mica  Spark-Plug. 
The  Splitdorf  Laboratory,  New  York  City. 


Fig.  84.    Section  of  Sta-Rite  Fig.  85.    Component  Parts  of  a  Soot-Proof 

Spark-Plug.  Spark-Plug. 

B.  E.  Hardy  Company,  New  York,  N.  Y.  A.  Mezgar,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 


AUTOMOBILES 


75 


have  high  insulating  qualities  so  that  the  only  possible  path  for  the 
current  will  be  across  the  gap.  This  means  that  the  plug  must  be 
made  of  high-grade  porcelain,  and  that  the  mica  used  in  its  insula- 
tion should  be  of  the  highest  quality  obtainable.  The  points  should 
be  platinum. 

Fig.  83  gives  an  external  and  a  sectional  view  of  the  Splitdorf 
mica  spark-plug,  made  by  the  Splitdorf  Laboratory,  New  York. 
Fig.  84  is  a  sectional  view  of  a  double  porcelain  separable  plug,  the 
Sta-Rite,  made  by  the  R.  E.  Hardy  Company,  New  York.  Fig.  85 
shows  all  parts  of  the  soot-proof  plug  made  by  A.  Mezgar,  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.  The  peculiar  construction  of  the  air-passages  in  this  plug  are 
such  that  it  is  claimed  the  plug 
may  be  blackened  by  holding  it 
in  the  flame  of  a  candle  before 
placing  in  the  cylinder,  and  after 
some  use  the  blast  in  the  cylinder 
will  have  cleaned  off  the  soot. 

Fig.  86  shows  the  standard 
dimensions  for  spark-plugs  as 
adopted  by  the  Association  of 
Licensed  Automobile  Manufac- 
turers. 

It  is  always  well  to  have  an  extra  set  of  spark-plugs  in  the  tool- 
box. 

MAKE-AND-BRBAK  SYSTEM 

The  Make-and-Break  system  of  ignition,  which  is  the  most  prev- 
alent in  stationary  gas-engine  work,  has  recently  come  into  favor  in 
automobile  practice.  Fig  87  shows  this  system  as  used  in  the  Stude- 
baker  car.  In  the  make-and-break  system,  instead  of  using,  a  spark- 
plug to  provide  the  gap  across  which  the  spark  jumps  when  high 
tension  occurs  in  the  secondary  system  as  already  explained,  a  rota- 
ting piece  and  spring  are  employed,  these  two  pieces  being  in  wiping 
contact  during  part  of  the  time,  and  the  contact  being  broken  during 
a  certain  part  of  the  time,  owing  to  the  shape  of  the  rotating  piece 
(which  is  clearly  shown  in  the  figure).  The  figure  shows  also  the 
relative  positions  of  the  four  make-and-break  igniters  at  any  one 
moment  in  a  four-cylinder  engine.  The  springs  at  the  top  of  the 
igniters  occasionally  lose  their  tension,  and  may  have  to  be  replaced 


Fig.  86.    Design  and  Dimensions  of  Standard 
Spark-Plug,  Association  of  Licensed 

Automobile  Manufacturers. 

A.—\yz  in. ;  B—  %  in. ;  C— Ys  in. ;  D—%  in. ;  E— 

Minimum,  ^  in. ;  F — Maximum, 

54  in. ;  H—  %  in. 


AUTOMOBILES  77 


or  adjusted  by  turning  the  tension  collar  one  or  more  holes  and  re- 
inserting the  cotter-pin. 

After  a  month  or  so  of  continuous  running,  the  contact-points  at 
the  bottom  of  the  igniter  and  on  the  inside  of  the  cylinder  may  become 
blackened.  In  this  case  it  is  advisable  to  remove  the  entire  igniter- 
block,  and  soak  it  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  in  kerosene,  after  which 
it  should  be  washed  thoroughly.  When  replacing  the  block  in  the 
cylinder,  always  see  that  the  external  parts  are  carefully  lubricated. 
It  is  well  to  remove  the  contact-blocks  about  once  a  month,  and  wash 
them  as  above  described. 

STORAGE  BATTERIES  FOR  IGNITION  PURPOSES  WITH 
GASOLINE  ENGINES 

The  most  satisfactory  current  for  charging  storage  batteries  for 
ignition  in  gasoline  engines,  is  one  which  can  be  supplied  at  a  low 
voltage,  as  by  means  of  dynamos  specially  designed  for  this  purpose, 
so  that  it  can  be  regulated  at  about  the  total  voltage  of  the  batteries 
to  be  charged — that  is,  in  the  neighborhood  of  six  to  eight  volts. 

To  charge  the  batteries,  it  is  necessary  to  raise  the  voltage  of  the 
dynamo  to  a  greater  value  than  that  of  the  battery.  If  the  voltage 
of  the  charging  dynamo  is  less  than  that  of  the  battery,  the  ammeter 
will  indicate  that  a  current  is  flowing,  but  the  pointer  will  be  drawn 
towards  the  left  or  in  a  backward  direction,  showing  that  the  current 
is  in  an  opposite  direction  from  what  it  should  be,  and  the  battery 
is  discharging  through  the  dynamo. 

If  it  is  not  practicable  to  secure  the  power  by  driving  a  low- 
voltage  dynamo  for  charging  the  storage  battery,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  place  some  kind  of  a  variable  electrical  resistance  in  the  charging 
circuit,  so  as  to  prevent  a  destructive  current  from  flowing,  due  to 
the  higher  voltage.  For  this  purpose,  incandescent  lamps  may  be 
used,  placed  in  the  circuit  in  accordance  with  the  diagrams,  Fig.  88. 
The  necessary  number  and  capacity  of  the  lamps  depend  on  the 
voltage  supplied  and  the  current  required.  The  diagrams  indicate 
16-candle-power  lamps;  with  32-candle-power  lamps,  twice  as  much 
current  would  flow  through  the  batteries. 

Sketch  A  shows  a  voltage  of  110,  each  lamp  used  allowing  one 
half-ampere  to  flow.  Two  lamps  would  mean  one  ampere;  six 
lamps,  three  amperes;  etc. 


78 


AUTOMOBILES 


Sketches  B  and  C  are  for  220  volts.  Sketch  B  shows  two  20- 
volt  lamps,  each  allowing  one  quarter-ampere  to  flow.  Sketch  C 
shows  110-volt  lamps  with  a  line  voltage  of  220.  In  this  sketch  the 
lamps  are  connected  in  pairs,  each  pair  taking  one  half-ampere. 


Dynamo 


//o  Vott  Lamps 

6  Lamps 

a  Lamps  /Amp, 


namo , 


Votfmtttr 


22oVolf  Lamps 
/2  Lamps  jAmpj. 
•*•  Lamps  /Amp. 


Dynamo 


Voltmeter 

Lamps,  /2 

Lamps  or6Patr,s  .          ,,  . 

Amps,  -f  Lamps    \    r~Tn/  iioVott  Lamps,  so_ 

or  2  Pair  /Amp\  A  A  I  tfHft  Lampj  or  e Jets 

of s  each.  3  Amps 

10  Lamps  or  2 

Jete  of '£ each. t 

/Amp, 

Fig.  88.    Diagrams  Showing  Use  of  Incandescent  Lamps  as  Variable  Resistances  in 
Charging  Storage  Batteries  Used  for  Ignition  Purposes  with  Gasoline  Engines. 

Sketch  D  shows  connections  for  550  volts.  In  this  case  five 
times  as  many  lamps  are  needed  as  in  A,  connected  in  sets  of  five 
each,  each  set  giving  one  half-ampere. 

Only  direct  current  can  be  used  in  charging  storage  batteries. 
Be  sure  to  connect  the  positive  wire  of  the  charging  line  with  the  positive 
terminal  of  the  battery.  Otherwise,  damage  to  the  battery  will  result. 


AUTOMOBILES  79 


To  determine  which  is  the  positive  terminal  of  the  charging 
line,  attach  a  piece  of  lead  to  each  wire  of  the  line,  and  immerse  the 
lead  pieces  in  a  glass  containing  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  without 
touching  each  other.  After  the  current  has  passed  through  the  acid 
for  a  short  time,  the  positive  lead  will  commence  to  discolor  and,  after 
a  while,  will  turn  brown.  Mark  this  wire  plus  (  +  ),  and  connect 
it  to  the  battery  terminal  marked  plus  (  +  ),  placing  the  resistance  of 
lamps  or  other  nature  between  the  positive  terminal  of  the  charging 
line  and  the  positive  terminal  of  the  battery.  The  voltage  of  the 
charging  line  should  not  be  over  twenty-five  per  cent  greater  than  the 
discharge  voltage  of  the  battery — or,  for  a  three-cell  six-volt  battery, 
about  7.5  volts.  The  indication  that  a  battery  is  fully  charged  is 
gasing  or  fine  boiling  of  the  liquid  electrolyte.  Further  instructions 
as  to  care  of  the  storage  battery  will  be  found  below,  under  the  head- 
ings "Care  and  Operation  of  Electric  Vehicles"  and  "Care  of  Storage 
Batteries." 

ENGINE=CONTROLLING   MECHANISM 

Before  attempting  to  drive  the  car,  the  new  operator  should 
become  acquainted  with  the  functions  of  the  various  levers  and 
pedals.  Of  these,  the  ones  that  control  the  engine  are  the  Spark- 
Lever  and  the  Throttle-Lever  or  Pedal;  also  the  Compression-Release 
Pedal  and  Muffler  Cut-Out.  , 

Spark=Lever.  The  spark-lever  controls  the  time  at  which  the 
electric  spark  occurs  in  the  cylinders.  Without  a  spark,  there  can 
be  no  ignition  of  gas  in  the  cylinders,  and  no  movement  of  the 
engine.  The  time  at  which  the  spark  occurs  is  an  important  feature 
which  is  made  use  of  in  regulating  the  speed  and  power  of  the  engine. 
The  spark-lever  is  usually  so  placed  that  by  moving  it  back  toward 
the  operator  as  far  as  it  will  go,  it  causes  the  spark  to  occur  at  a 
late  period  in  the  stroke;  that  is,  the  piston  will  have  passed  a  con- 
siderable distance  from  the  beginning  of  its  stroke,  and  the  crank  a 
considerable  angle  past  the  dead  center,  when  the  charge  is  ignited. 
This  action  is  called  retarding  the  spark. ' 

One  effect  of  this  late  spark  is  to  prevent  any  back-kicking, 
which  would  likely  occur  if  the  explosion  took  place  near  the  dead 
center  in  an  engine  which  had  not  yet  attained  any  forward 
momentum. 


80  AUTOMOBILES 


Another  effect  is  weak  power  and  consequently  low  speed.  The 
compressed  charge  has  had  opportunity  to  expand  as  it  fills  the  in- 
creasing space  back  of  the  advancing  piston;  hence,  when  it  is 
ignited,  the  pressure  force  due  to  the  explosion  will  not  be  so  great 
as  when  the  ignited  mixture  is  still  more  highly  compressed.  More- 
over, the  spark  occurring  late  in  the  stroke  means  that  the  effective 
forward  pressure  effort  is  exerted  during  a  lesser  portion  of  the  entire 
stroke  than  would  be  the  case  with  an  early  spark. 

Advancing  the  spark-lever  advances  the  spark;  that  is,  the  spark 
occurs  earlier  in  the  stroke,  and  the  speed  is  accelerated. 

In  addition  to  hand-regulation,  automatic  regulation  of  the 
spark  is  accomplished  in  some  cars.  The  method  employed  is 

usually  an  automatic  centrifugal  or  in- 
ertia governor,  being  in  all  mechanical 
respects  a  miniature  steam-engine  fly- 
wheel type  of  governor,  which  is  mounted 
on  the  commutator-shaft  and  connected 
to  the  commutator  so  as  to  cause  a  later 
or  retarded  ignition  if  the  speed  increases 
too  high.  While  in  one  sense  such  a 
spark  controller  is  a  convenience,  it  is 
looked  on  b7  many  operators  as  an  un- 
necessary refinement,  and  merely  an  addi- 
tional piece  of  mechanism  to  take  care  of. 

Location  of  Spark-Lever.  In  some  cars  the  spark-lever  is  on  the 
right  of  the  driver's  seat.  In  other  cars  it  is  on  the  steering  column. 
Fig.  89  is  a  view  of  the  top  of  the  hand-wheel,  showing  the  most 
usual  location  of  spark-  and  throttle-levers.  Fig.  90  shows  the  steer- 
ing column  in  section,  and  illustrates  how  the  various  concentric  tubes 
which  turn  independently  of  each  other  are  turned  by  means  of  these 
levers  and  in  turn  draw  the  rods  regulating  spark  and  throttle  con- 
trol. 

Throttle=Lever.  The  throttle-lever  is  equally  important  with 
the  spark-lever  in  acting  as  a  governor  or  controlling  lever,  in  regu- 
lating the  speed  and  power  of  the  engine.  The  throttle-lever  is 
named  by  some  makers  the  controlling  lever  or  the  governor  lever. 
In  some  makes  of  car  the  throttle-lever  is  located  on  top  of  the  steer- 
ing wheel;  in  other  makes  the  throttle-lever  is  operated  by  a  foot- 


Fig.  89.    Hand-wheel,  showing 


AUTOMOBILES 


81 


pedal  or  button;  in  still  other  makes  a  rod  is  connected  to  the  throt- 
tling valve  in  such  a  manner  that  when  the  clutch  is  thrown  out, 
throwing  the  load  off  the  engine,  the  same  movement  closes  the 
throttle,  cutting  off  the  supply  of  gas  to  the  engine  till  it  is  just  barely 


Eccentric  Bushiny 


Fig.  90. 


Section  of  Steering  Column,  Showing  Spark-  and  Throttle- 
Levers  and  Connections. 


enough  to  keep  it  turning  around.  In  cars  in  which  such  an  auto- 
matic closing  of  the  throttle  is  not  provided,  the  operator  must 
throttle  his  gas  supply  when  he  slows  up  or  throws  the  load  off  the 
engine;  otherwise  the  continuance  of  the  full  charge  of  gas  into  the 
cylinders  will  cause  the  engine  to  speed  up  or  race.  This  racing  is 
not  beneficial  to  an  engine,  and  must  be  avoided,  either  by  releasing 
the  foot-pedal  which  in  some  cars  operates  the  throttle,  or  by  mov- 
ing the  lever  on  the  steering  wheel  which  controls  it  in  others. 


82 

The  throttle-1 
in  the  pipe-line  ru 
butterfly  valve  enl 
to  engine  cylinder 

In  starting,  th 


Wetter  Pipe  to  Radiator 
ureter 


Gasoline  from  Tank  • 

Fig.  91.    Throttle-Control  System  of  Peerless  Car. 
Peerless  Motor  Car  Company,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

throttle-lever  is  in  the  position  admitting  only  enough  gas  to  turn 
the  engine  over. 

When  shifting  gears,  the  throttle  should  be  momentarily  closed, 
and  the  clutch  entirely  disengaged. 

Just  before  stopping  the  engine,  push  the  throttle-lever  to  the 
position  in  which  it  most  completely  closes  the  throttle  valve. 

In  speeding  up  a  car,  advance  the  throttle  first,  and  then  follow 
with  the  spark. 

Do  not  get  in  the  habit  of  running  the  car  with  the  throttle  open 
and  spark  retarded.  This  results  in  over-heating  of  cylinders  and 
valves,  often  causing  exhaust  valves  to  stick  from  over-heating  and 
carbonizing,  and  resulting  in  excessive  gasoline  consumption.  Keep 


AUTOMOBILES  83 


the  spark  advanced  in  proportion  to  the  speed  of  the  car.  However, 
watch  carefully  for  any  signs  of  knocking,  which  is  occasioned  by 
having  the  spark  too  far  advanced,  causing  early  explosion  of  the 
charge.  This  throws  a  heavy  strain  on  the  crank-shaft  when  passing 
dead  center,  and  is  likely  to  break  the  crank-shaft. 

A  novice  is  inclined  to  race  his  engine — to  open  his  throttle  too 
wide,  giving  too  much  charge  without  any  load.  He  is  apt  to  be 
afraid  that  if  he  checks  down  the  throttle,  he  will  have  to  get  out  and 


Fig.  93.    Steering  Column,  Control  Levers, 

Fig.  02.    Steering  Column,  Control  Levers,  and  Other  Operating  Devices  of 

and  Emergency  Brake  of  Great  Arrow  Car.  Locomobile  Car. 

George  N.  Pierce  Company,  Locomobile  Company  of  America, 

Buffalo,  N.  Y.  Bridgeport,  Conn. 

start  the  engine  again.  The  result  is  that  fuel  is  wasted  and  parts 
are  worn  out  unnecessarily. 

Fig.  91  is  a  diagram  showing  a  typical  throttle-control  system  as 
used  by  the  Peerless  Motor  Car  Company.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
the  small  throttle-lever  on  the  steering  column,  and  the  Accelerator 
foot-pedal,  operate  the  same  rod,  regulating  the  amount  of  mixture 
admitted  to  engine.  A  separate  lever  in  this  car  regulates  the  amount 
of  cold  air  admitted  to  the  mixture. 

Figs.  92  and  93  are  other  typical  examples  of  engine-controlling 
mechanism. 

Muffler  Cut=0ut  and  Compression- Relief  Levers.  In  addition 
to  the  spark-  and  throttle-levers,  most  cars  are  provided  with  levers 


AUTOMOBILES  85 


for  opening  the  exhaust  into  the  air  without  passing  through  the  muf- 
fler. This  is  a  means  of  gaining  more  power,  and  is  utilized  in  going 
up  grades  and  when  power  is  at  low  ebb. 

The  compression-relief  rod  connects  to  cocks  on  the  engine 
cylinders,  preventing  or  partially  preventing  compression.  The 
chief  use  of  this  rod  is  in  starting,  to  permit  of  easy  cranking.  The 
compression-relief  rod,  instead  of  operating  independent  relief-cocks, 
is  frequently  connected  to  cams  or  rollers  which  raise  the  exhaust 
valves. 

Fig.  94  is  a  side  elevation  of  Model  24  Rambler  Car,  which 
shows  very  clearly  the  location  and  action  of  the  muffler  cut-out  and 
compression-relief  levers.  In  this  diagram,  G  is  the  muffler  cut-out 
pedal,  which  connects  to  K,  the  muffler  cut-out;  and  H  is  the  pull- 
rod  for  opening  the  cylinder  compression-relief  cocks. 

POWER=TRANSMISSION  DEVICES 

Thus  far  we  have  considered  the  frame,  the  running  gear,  the 
engine,  and  the  methods  used  for  operating  and  controlling  the 
engine.  The  next  logical  step  in  our  analysis  of  the  car  into  its 
component  parts,  is  a  study  of  the  methods  of  transmitting  the  engine 
power  at  its  various  speeds  to  the  running  gear.  This  leads  us  to  a 
study  of  Power-Transmission  Systems. 

The  power-transmission  system  consists  (1)  of  the  Clutch  and 
its  operating  rods  and  levers  for  connecting  the  engine  to  the  speed- 
changing  or  transmission  system;  (2)  of  the  Transmission  or  Change- 
Speed  Gears,  which  transmit  the  power  of  the  engine  to  the  Differential 
System,  which  last-named  transmits  the  power  from  the  change- 
speed  gears  to  the  rear  axle  of  the  car.  The  Clutch  System  and  the 
Transmission  or  Change-Speed  System  each  include  a  set  of  operating 
rods  and  levers,  the  action  of  each  of  which  must  be  thoroughly 
understood  by  the  operator  before  he  attempts  to  drive  his  car. 

CLUTCHES 

Metallic  Constriction=Band  Clutches.  Most  runabouts  having 
horizontal  engines  use  what  is  known  as  the  constriction-band  type  of 
clutch  in  connection  with  planetary  transmission.  The  various 
speeds  are  given  from  the  engine  to  a  countershaft  or  an  external 
hollow  shaft  carrying  a  sprocket  wheel  over  which  passes  a  chain 


86 


AUTOMOBILES 


"Sa 


driving  a  larger  sprocket  on  the  rear  axle.  These  various  speeds  are 
secured  in  the  following  manner: 

A  series  of  rods  or  clutch  fingers  are  attached  to  a  collar  on  a 
countershaft  in  such  a  manner  that  they  may  be  operated  to  and  fro 
by  means  of  a  lever  located  at  the  driver's  right  hand,  which  is  known 
as  the  clutch  lever.  In  this  type  of  transmission,  high  speed  is  secured 
by  locking  all  of  the  transmission  gearing  together  so  that  it  revolves 
with  the  motor  shaft  and  acts  as  an  additional  fly-wheel  carrying 

with  it  the  driving  sprocket. 
In  the  neutral  position,  the 
clutch  fingers  are  altogether 
released,  leaving  the  motor 
free  to  run  without  driving  the 
automobile. 

The  constriction  bands  are 
used  to  hold  the  large  ring 
gears  with  internal  teeth,  which 
constitute  the  outer  periphery, 
from  turning  while  the  inter- 
nal smaller  pinions  roll  around 

Fig.  95.    Constriction-Band  Clutch,  as  Used  inside    at    a    speed    SUCn    that 

Reo  Motor  car  GomrS-n^Lansing,  Mich.  the  sprocket  is  driven  at  about 

one-third  or  one-fourth  that  of 

the  engine  shaft.  The  mounting  and  meshing  of  the  various  gears 
are  arranged  so  that  the  tightening  of  one  constriction  band  causes 
slow  speed  forward,  and  of  the  other  constriction  band  causes  slow 
speed  backward.  In  a  good  many  vehicles  of  the  runabout  type, 
the  reverse  feature  is  separately  connected  to  a  foot-pedal. 

Oil  should  not  be  put  on  metal  band  clutches  unless  there  is  evi- 
dence of  cutting,  as  it  will  cause  them  to  slip.  The  wearing  surfaces  of 
the  bands  should  be  wiped  with  gasoline  occasionally,  to  help  keep 
them  smooth  and  clean. 

It  is  seldom  necessary  to  tighten  the  clutch  bands,  and  it  is 
usually  a  mistake  to  tighten  them,  as  this  is  likely  to  cause  them  to 
break. 

Fig.  95  shows  an  external  view  of  a  typical  constriction-band 
clutch  as  used  with  planetary  transmission  in  the  Reo  car. 

Fig.  96  shows  the  planetary  transmission  of  the  Reo  car,  with 


AUTOMOBILES 


87 


the  rods  attached  to  the  clutches.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  reversing 
clutch  has  its  rod  connected  to  a  foot-pedal,  and  the  two  forward 
speed  clutches  are  operated  by  the  side  lever  on  the  outside  of  the 
frame 

Planetary  transmissions  have  the  clutches  and  their  levers  so 
arranged  as  to  give  two  speeds  forward  and  one  reverse,  in  almost 
all  instances. 

The  arrangement  of  the  gears  and  their  action  in  the  planetary 


Fig.  96.    Side  View  of  Part  of  Chassis  of  Reo  Car,  Showing  Constriction-Band 

Clutches  and  Operating  Rods. 
Reo  Motor  Car  Company,  Lansing,  Mich. 

transmission  system  are  more  fully  described  under  the  heading  of 
"Speed-Changing  Gears." 

Disc  Clutches.  With  vertical  automobile  engines,  the  friction 
clutch  is  most  generally  a  single  disc  in  the  form  of  a  frustum  or 
section  of  a  cone,  with  a  face  several  inches  in  diameter;  or  a  series  of 
flat  discs.  The  disc  or  discs  are  either  pushed  into  the  fly-wheel 
(which  has  a  corresponding  hollowed-out  portion)  from  the  rear 
towards  the  front  of  the  car,  or  are  pulled  into  the  fly-wheel  towards 
the  back  on  the  squared  portion  of  a  coupling  shaft  between  the 
engine  and  transmission.  In  this  manner  the  rotation  of  the  engine 
fly-wheel  is  transmitted  to  the  shaft  on  which  the  clutch  disc  or  discs 
are  keyed.  This  clutch  shaft  is  in  turn  connected  to  the  so-called 


88 


AUTOMOBILES 


Fig.  97.    Leather-Faced  Disc  Clutch. 

Peerless  Motor  Car  Company, 

Cleveland,  Ohio. 


transmission  or  speed-changing 
system,  which  connects  to  the 
rear  or  driving  wheels. 

The  clutch  is  most  frequently 
operated   by  means  of  a  push- 
pedal.    In  some  cars  it  is  neces- 
sary to  keep  a  downward  pres- 
sure on   the   pedal,  either  with 
the  foot  or  by  means  of  a  latch- 
ing device,  in  order  to  keep  the 
clutch  in  contact  with  the  fly- 
wheel.    In  this  type  of  construc- 
tion,  a    stiff    spring    normally 
pulls  the  clutch  out  of  engage- 
ment,  the    pull    of 
the  spring  being 
overcome     by    the 
pressure    on    the 
pedal. 

Another  type  of 
construction  is  one 
in  which  a  forward 
pressure  on  the 
push-pedal  disen- 
gages the  clutch 
from  the  fly-wheel 
and  prevents  the 
transmission  of 
power  from  the  en- 
gine to  the  trans- 
mission. 

It  is  a  very  gen- 
eral mistake  to  con- 
sider it  as  part  of 
the  regular  oiling 
of  an  automobile  to  oil  the  leather  face  of  the  clutch.  If  the 
clutch  is  operating  satisfactorily,  it  should  not  be  disturbed.  If  it 
slips,  it  needs  attention.  Slipping  of  the  clutch  is  caused  by  its 


Fig.  98.    Leather-Faced  Conical  Clutch  in  Position  on 

Chassis  of  Thomas  Car. 
E.  R.  Thomas  Motor  Company,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 


AUTOMOBILES 


being  too  greasy  and  hardened  by  dirt.  The  remedy  is  to  clean  the 
leather  with  gasoline  and  then  treat  it  with  castor  oil,  spreading  the 
oil  all  around,  and  allowing  it  to  soak  over  night  in  order  to  make  it 
soft  and  pliable. 

In  some  cars  the  pliability  of  the  clutch  leather  is  increased  by 
having  grooves  milled  or  chipped  into  the  aluminum  body  of  the  disc, 


Fig.  99.    Multiple-Disc  Clutch  of  the  Franklin  Car. 
H.  H.  Franklin  Manufacturing  Company,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

and  placing  short  pieces  of  flat  spring  steel  with  a  slight  outward 
curvature  in  these  slots.  The  outward  pressure  against  the  leather 
band,  which,  although  riveted  or  stitched  to  the  disc,  is  attached  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  be  susceptible  to  this  outward  action  of  the  spring 
steel,  makes  it  very  easy  to  engage  the  clutch  gradually  and  without 
sudden  gripping.  A  novice  is  inclined  to  throw  the  clutch  in  too 
suddenly. 

Fig.  97  shows  a  conical  leather-faced  disc  clutch  as  used  in  the 
Peerless  car;  and  Fig.  98  shows  a  similar  clutch  as  used  in  the  Thomas 
car,  mounted  in  position  on  the  chassis. 


90 


AUTOMOBILES 


Recently  multiple-disc  clutches  have  been  superseding  the  leather- 
faced  cone  clutches,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  leather  wears  out 
pretty  rapidly,  and  also  the  multiple  discs  can  be  put  into  small  space 
and  encased  in  oil.  Fig.  99  shows  this  type  of  clutch  as  used  in  the 

Franklin  car.  The  disc  clutch 
is  located  within  the  fly-wheel. 
The  discs  are  of  phosphor- 
bronze  and  steel  alternated, 
and  run  in  an  oil  bath.  The 
bronze  discs  revolve  with  the 
fly-wheel;  the  steel  discs  re- 
volve with  the  clutch-driver. 
None  of  the  discs  can  revolve 
independently,  but  they  are 
free  to  slide  together  or  apart; 
and  when  the  clutch  is  let  in, 
a  spiral  spring  squeezes  them 
together.  As  the  oil  between 
them  is  squeezed  out,  the 
bronze  discs  turned  by  the  fly- 
wheel press  against  the  steel 
discs  on  the  clutch-driver, 
which  is  connected  to  the  trans- 
mission shaft,  and  gradually 
revolve  them  by  friction.  This 
revolves  the  transmission  shaft, 
and  the  car  gradually  starts. 
"*  MvrSS3lS3&8iSSS3£!>mo1  This  clutch  is  further  illus- 

H.  H.  Franklin  Mfg.  Co.,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.  .  . 

trated  diagrammaticallym  rig. 

100.  The  bolts  A  prevent  the  phosphor-bronze  discs  from  rotating 
in  the  fly-wheel  B,  but  the  discs  are  free  to  move  laterally  The 
steel  discs  C  do  not  touch  the  fly-wheel,  but  are  carried  on  the 
clutch-driver  D1  on  which  they  are  free  to  move  laterally,  but  can 
rotate  only  with  the  clutch-driver  The  clutch-driver,  by  means  of 
the  universal  block  E,  is  connected  directly  to  the  transmission  shaft  F. 
The  flat  spiral  spring  G  holds  the  plates  firmly  against  each 
other  when  the  clutch  is  engaged  or  whenever  the  foot-lever  II  is 
not  pressed  forward. 


AUTOMOBILES  91 


As  the  motor  turns,  it  revolves  the  fly-wheel  B-,  the  discs  I 
also  revolve,  being  driven  by  bolts  A .  Because  of  the  spring  G, 
friction  is  exerted  on  the  discs  /  and  O,  and  the  discs  C  are  thus 
made  to  revolve.  This  rotates  the  clutch-driver  D,  because  the  discs  C 
are  fastened  to  it.  The  rotation  of  the  clutch-driver  D  is  communi- 
cated to  the  transmission  by  the  square  driving  block  E- 

To  throw  out  the  clutch,  the  foot-lever  If  is  pressed  forward. 
This  moves  the  clutch-shifter  lever  J  backward,  which  carries  with 
it  the  clutch-shifter  trunnion  K,  which  runs  upon  the  clutch-driver 
D.  As  the  clutch-driver  D  moves  backward,  it  brings  with  it  the 
ball  thrust  represented  by  L,  M,  and  N.  This  compresses  the 
spring  G,  relieving  the  pressure  on  the  discs,  which,  being  free  to 
move  laterally,  separate;  and  oil,  from  the  oil  bath  in  which  the 
clutch  runs,  fills  up  the  spaces  between  the  plates.  When  the  clutch 
is  released,  the  oil  which  has  gotten  in  between  the  plates  is  released 
by  pressure.  While  the  oil  is  being  removed,  the  clutch  slips  slightly 
and  the  car  picks  up  gradually. 

SPEED=CHANGINQ  GEARS 

Planetary  Gears.  The  operation  of  constriction-band  clutches 
used  in  connection  with  planetary  gears  has  already  been  touched 
upon  under  the  heading  of  "Clutches." 

Fig.  101  is  a  view  of  a  typical  planetary  gear  set,  as  used  in  the 
Cadillac  car.  In  this  figure,  the  central  gear  D  is  the  driving  gear, 
and  is  keyed  to  the  engine  shaft.  This  drive  gear  meshes  with  the 
planetary  pinions  FFF,  which  in  turn  mesh  with  the  internal 
gear  B. 

The  driving  sprocket  and  its  frame  are  mounted  on  a  journal 
which  rotates  freely  about  the  engine  shaft,  either  at  the  same  speed 
forward  as  the  engine  shaft,  or  at  slower  speed  forward,  or  at  a  slow 
speed  in  the  reverse  direction.  The  speed  and  direction  of  the 
sprocket  depend  on  the  operation  of  the  clutches.  If  the  lever  is 
drawn  which  is  attached  to  the  high-speed  clutch,  the  drum  K  be- 
comes locked  to  the  engine  shaft.  All  of  the  gears  are  then  inactive, 
and  the  entire  gear  set  rotates  as  an  additional  fly-wheel,  the  sprocket 
turning  at  the  same  speed  as  the  engine  shaft. 

For  slow  speed  the  drum  K  is  held  by  the  tightening  of  the  slow- 
speed  clutch  band,  preventing  the  drum  from  rotating.  The  plane- 


92 


AUTOMOBILES 


Fig.  101.    Planetary  Transmission  Gear  of 

Cadillac  Single-Cylinder  Car. 
Cadillac  Motor  Car  Company,  Detroit,  Mich. 


tary  pinions,  rolling  on  the  internal  gear  B,  drive  the  same  slowly 
forward,  and  with  it  the  sprocket  A. 

For  reverse,  the  case  H  is  held  by  its  constriction  band;  and 

gear  B  is  now  driven  in  the  op- 
posite direction  from  the  engine 
shaft,  and  with  it  the  sprocket 
A. 

Sliding  Gears.  The  sliding- 
ar  type  of  speed-changing  de- 
vice is  by  far  the  most  generally 
used,  particularly  on  touring 
cars  and  heavier  cars  in  general. 
The  sliding-gear  set  consists 
of  two  sets  of  gears — one  set 
mounted  on  a  shaft  to  which 
they  are  rigidly  fastened;  and 
the  other  set  mounted  on  a 
countershaft,  which  is  either 
square  between  its  journals,  or 
with  a  long  key  so  that  the 
gears  on  it  may  be  moved 
lengthwise  along  the  counter- 
shaft and  made  to  mesh  in  dif- 
ferent combinations  with  the 
gears  that  are  fixed  in  position 
on  the  main  shaft. 

The  operation  of  the  sliding- 
gear  set  on  any  car  can  be  easily 
learned  by  removing  the  gear- 
box cover  and  moving  the  gear- 
shifting  levers,  watching  the  resulting  gear  meshings. 

Fig.  102  shows  the  sliding-gear  set  of  the  Franklin  car.  The  cut 
shows  the  position  of  the  gears  for  direct  drive,  or  high-speed  gear. 
For  reversing,  gears  A  and  B  are  in  mesh.  For  low  speed,  gears  A 
and  C  are  in  mesh. 

Fig.  103  is  another  example  of  a  sliding-gear  set  as  used  in  the 
Autocar.  The  shaft  A  is  the  main  drive  shaft,  on  which  the  clutch 
is  mounted.  Gears  B  and  C  are  practically  one  piece,  and  are  car- 


Fig.  102.   Sliding  Transmission  Gear 

of  Franklin  Car. 
H.  H.  Franklin  Mfg.  Co.,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


AUTOMOBILES 


93 


ried  along  the  squared  shaft  D  by  a  sliding  fork  connected  by  rods 
to  the  gear-shifting  lever  (this  fork  is  not  shown  in  the  illustration). 
Shaft  A  is  separate  from  shaft  D ;  that  is,  they  can  revolve  at  different 
speeds.  For  the  slowest  speed,  the  slide  gear  BC  is  moved  along  the 
squared  shaft  until  C  is  in  rresh  with  E.  For  the  reverse,  C  meshes 


Fig.  103.    Sliding-Gear  Set  of  Autocar. 
Autocar  Company,  Ardmore,  Pa. 

with  an  idler  connected  with  F.  For  the  intermediate  speed,  B 
meshes  with  G.  For  high  speed  or  direct  drive,  the  teeth  H  engage 
with  the  teeth  K,  and  D  rotates  at  the  same  speed  as  the  engine  shaft. 
At  all  times  L  is  in  mesh  with  M,  and  so  drives  the  countershaft  N. 
At  the  rear  end  of  D,  is  the  universal  joint  connecting  the  gear  set 
with  the  rear  axle. 

All  modern  cars  that  use  sliding-gear  sets  are  provided  with 
some  arrangement  whereby  the  clutch  is  disengaged  during  the  gear- 
shifting  process,  in  order  to  prevent  grinding  of  gears  during  changes. 


94 


AUTOMOBILES 


Speed=Changing  Levers  Operating  Sliding  Gears.  Some  cars 
have  separate  levers  for  high  and  low  speed.  Some  use  a  lever  for 
high  speed,  and  a  foot-pedal  for  slow  speed ;  and  in  such  cars  the 
operator  must  be  careful  never  to  throw  the  high-speed  lever  forward 
before  the  low-speed  lever  is  released,  or  vice  versa. 

Some  makers  use  a  single  speed-changing  lever  on  the  right  side 
of  the  car,  usually  nearer  the  operator  than  the  brake  lever,  which  is 


Fig.  104.    Emergency  Brake  and  Change-Gear  Control. 
H.  H.  Franklin  Manufacturing  Company,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

generally  the  outside  lever  where  there  are  two  levers  on  the  right 
side  of  the  car.  With  this  variety  of  speed-changing  lever,  there  is 
usually  a  piece  in  the  form  of  a  quadrant  or  arc  of  a  circle  located 
near  the  lower  part  of  the  lever.  This  quadrant  is  provided  with 
notches  that  catch  a  pawl  with  a  spring  back  of  it,  which  is  com- 
pressed and  consequently  released  by  the  hand  pressing  on  a  grip 
operating  a  rod  leading  to  the  spring.  These  notches  or  steps  are 
located  at  the  points  for  proper  meshing  of  gears,  or  of  tightening  of 
clutch-bands  for  the  various  speeds. 

A  still  further  range  in  a  limited  space  is  obtained  in  the 
Thomas,  Franklin,  Peerless,  and  other  cars,  by  means  of  a  lateral 
movement  of  the  speed-changing  lever  so  that  it  has  two  paths  in 


AUTOMOBILES 


95 


the  quadrant — an  inner  and    an   outer    path — each  path   provided 
with  notches. 

Fig.  104  shows  this  type  of  lever  and  quadrant  as  used  in  the 
Franklin  car;  and  Fig.  105  shows  a  similar  set  as  used  in  the  Peerless 


REVERSE  GATE  LOCK  PLUNGER  , 


CHANGE  SPEED  HAND  LEVER 


CHANGE  SPEED  OPERATING 
SLEEVE  OILEH  . 

CHANGE  SPEED  OPERATING  / 

SLEEVE 


REVERSE  GATE  LOCK 


QUADRANT  BRACKET 


CHANGE  SPEED  OPERATING  LEVER 


car.  Referring  to  Fig.  105,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  lever  can  be 
thrown  into  five  notches.  When  the  lever  is  in  neutral  position  be- 
tween the  notches,  none  of  the  gears  are  meshed,  and  the  motor  runs 
free. 

In  the  first  speed,  the  driving  is  through  the  direct-drive  sleeve, 
countershaft  gear,  first-speed  pinion,  and  first-speed  gear  (see  Fig. 


96  AUTOMOBILES 


106,  which  shows  the  sliding  gears  of  the  Peerless  car).  Second 
speed  is  through  direct-drive  sleeve,  countershaft  gear,  second-speed 
pinion,  and  second-speed  gear.  Third  speed  is  through  direct-drive 
sleeve,  countershaft  gear,  third-speed  pinion,  and  third-speed  gear. 
High  speed  is  through  direct-drive  gear  meshing  internally  with 
third-speed  gear,  thus  making  a  direct  drive. 

For  the  reverse,  the  driving  is  through  the  countershaft  pinion, 
countershaft  gear,  first-speed  pinion,  and  reverse  idler  gear  that 
reverses  first-speed  gear. 

The  most  desirable  arrangement  for  direction  of  lever  move- 
ment for  reverse,  is  one  in  which  the  lever  must  be  pushed  backward 
from  neutral  notch  towards  the  rear  of  the  car,  as  this  seems  the 
natural  movement  to  produce  backing  up. 

Use  of  Speed=Changing  Levers  -in  Operating  Car.  Before 
pushing  lever  into  high  gear,  start  on  low  gear,  then  throw  into 
middle  gear,  and  then  into  high  speed. 

To  stop  the  car,  disengage  the  clutch  where  the  clutch  is  operated 
by  a  foot-pedal  separate  from  the  hand-levers.  This  plan  is  advo- 
cated because  it  facilitates  quick  stopping.  Remember,  however, 
that  you  have  not  "finished  your  job"  until  the  speed  lever  has  been 
thrown  into  "neutral"  or  "off"  position.  You  are  likely  to  forget 
this,  although  remembering  the  other  details  in  regard  to  stopping 
your  engine,  with  the  result  that  when  you  throw  in  the  clutch  you 
start  off  on  high  speed. 

In  cars  where  a  foot-pedal  throws  in  the  clutch,  be  sure  that  the 
speed-selecting  lever  is  fully  in  position  for  proper  meshing  before 
the  clutch  pedal  is  let  into  connection;  otherwise  the  gear  teeth  may 
be  only  partly  in  mesh,  and  the  sudden  strains  of  starting  would  be 
liable  to  damage  the  gears. 

CAUTION.  Engage  but  one  gear  at  a  time.  A  serious  chance 
for  confusion  and  breakage  is  offered  the  operator  in  makes  of  cars 
employing  separate  levers,  by  the  fact  that  in  some  cars  the  slow- 
speed  lever  is  used  as  a  reverse  lever  by  pushing  it  into  its  ex- 
treme forward  position,  instead  of  by  adopting  the  suggestive  and 
natural  method  of  accomplishing  reverse  by  a  backward  throw  of 
the  lever. 

In  all  cars  employing  two  levers  for  speed  changes,  be  abso- 
lutely sure  that  one  lever  is  thrown  into  neutral  position  before  the 


CHANGE  SPEED  GEAR  CASE  OIL  CUP 
CHANGE  SPEED  OIL  PIPE, 


CHANGE  SPEED  GEAR  CASE  COVER 


UNIVERSAL  JOINT  YOKE 


CHANGE  SPEED 
LOCKING  SLIDE 


LOCKING  SLIDE 
BRACKET  CAP 


REVERSE  REAR  ROCKER. 
ARM  GUIDt  PLATE 


Speed-Changing  Gear  Set,  in  Case. 


FIRST  SPEED  DRIVE  GEAR 
REVERSE  GEAR. 

FIRST  SPEED  DRIVEN  GEAR 
SECOND  SPEED  DRIVE  GEAR  ^ 
THIRD  SPEED  DRIVE  GEAR  \ 

CHANGE  SPEED  COUNTERSHAFT    ) 
DIRECT  DRIVE  <t  THIRD  SPEED  SLEEVE 
COUNTERSHAFT  DRIVEN  GEAR 
DIRECT  DRIVE  SLEEVE 
REVERSE  GEAR  SLIDE 

n«t&  2nd  SPEED  YOKE  SLIDE 


DIRECT  DRIVE  SHAFT 
DIRECT  DRIVE  SHAFT  KEY.    '  „ 


FIRST  AND  SECOND  SPEED 
SHIFTING  YOKE 


CHANGE  SPEED  GEAR  CASE 
REVERSE  GEAR  CAM 


Fig.  106.    Speed-Changing  Gear  Set,  Cover  Removed. 

Speed-Changing  Gear  of  Peerless  Car. 
Peerless  Motor  Car  Company,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 


(UN 


UNIVERSITYJ 

•MT 


98  AUTOMOBILES 


other  is  engaged.  The  neutral  position  would  naturally  be  the 
center  of  the  arc  or  quadrant;  but  here  again  different  makers 
differ. 

Although  some  cars  are  so  constructed  that  the  meshing  of  one 
lever  locks,  or  prevents  any  other  lever  from  being  thrown  into  mesh, 
there  are  many  makes  of  car  which  are  not  "fool-proof"  in  this  re- 
spect. A  novice,  thinking  he  has  to  put  on  his  slow  speed  before 
reversing,  and  then  put  on  his  reverse,  is  liable  to  damage  something 
in  some  makes  of  cars  where  he  can  put  both  in  mesh  at  the  same 
time. 

Changing  Gears.  A  driver  will  soon  become  familiar  with  the 
approximate  speed  corresponding  to  each  set  of  gears,  especially  if 
he  compares  the  speed  as  he  sees  and  feels  it  with  the  odometer 
readings.  In  changing  gears,  the  car  should  first  be  brought  by 
means  of  the  spark  and  throttle  regulation  to  very  nearly  the  speed 
of  the  gear  to  which  it  is  desired  to  change. 

In  changing  from  low  to  high,  the  movement  on  the  gear  lever 
should  be  quick,  so  that  meshing  of  the  teeth  is  done  promptly  with- 
out any  grating.  In  changing  from  high  to  low,  the  movement  does 
not  need  to  be  so  rapid. 

Difficulty  in  Changing  Gears.  If  there  is  difficulty  or  noise 
in  changing  gears,  it  is  likely  to  be  due  to  worn  or  loose  bearings, 
or  loose  pinions,  or  loosening  of  the  gear  case.  A  new  car  should 
not  be  accepted  if  there  is  difficulty  or  noise  in  changing  gears,  al- 
though this  feature  is  neglected  by  many  makers. 

Grinding  Gears.  Occasionally  a  car  is  found  which  gives  the 
operator  considerable  trouble  in  changing  from  one  gear  to  another, 
owing  to  the  gears  grinding  together  instead  of  going  into  mesh 
easily.  If  this  trouble  appears  by  degrees  in  a  car  ordinarily  well- 
behaved,  it  is  a  pretty  sure  indication  that  the  gear-shaft  bearings 
have  been  cut  so  that  the  shafts  are  badly  out  of  line,  and  trouble  of 
this  sort  should  be  investigated  at  once,  as  nothing  will  wear  the  gears 
so  fast  as  to  mesh  improperly. 

Running  on  High=Speed  Gear.  Where  there  are  three  speeds, 
the  highest  speed  is  usually  the  direct.  In  some  instances  where 
there  are  four  speeds,  the  third  is  the  direct.  It  is  generally  con- 
sidered best  to  keep  on  the  direct-drive  gear  as  much  as  possible, 
because  it  gives  less  heating,  and  there  is  less  friction  in  engine  and 


AUTOMOBILES  99 

transmission  and  less  lost  work.  When  the  engine  speed  gets  so  low 
that  the  strain  is  felt  in  each  stroke  in  the  parts,  it  is  best  to  change 
to  lower  gear. 

The  prevalent  fad  of  climbing  all  hills  on  the  high-speed  gear  is 
a  great  mistake.  Although  it  may  be  possible  to  force  a  car  up  a 
hill  on  this  gear,  the  time  taken  will  be  as  a  rule  just  as  long  as  if  the 
lower  gear  had  been  used,  and  the  strain  on  the  engine  and  trans- 
mission is  unnecessarily  great. 

DRIVE 

The  clutch  and  clutch-shaft  constitute  the  connecting  portion 
between  the  engine  and  the  speed-changing  or  transmission 
systems.  The  term  transmission,  in  its  general  sense,  includes  also 
the  connections  between  the  transmission  or  speed-changing  gears 
and  the  rear-axle  driving  system.  The  prevailing  types  of  trans- 
mission from  the  gears  to  the  rear  system,  and  generally  designated 
by  the  term  drive,  are: 

1.  Single-Chain  Drive.  4.     Friction  Drive. 

2.  Double-Chain  Drive.  5.     Cable  Drive. 

3.  Direct  or  Shaft  Drive. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  single-chain  drive  is  more  efficient  than 
either  the  shaft  or  double-chain  drive.  However,  a  single-chain 
system  necessitates  the  hanging  of  the  engine  lengthwise  with  the 
chain,  or  the  use  of  an  extremely  long  chain  extending  to  an  engine 
under  a  hood. 

The  shaft  drive  is  generally  acknowledged  to  be  more  efficient 
than  the  double-chain  drive,  because  there  are  fewer  points  of  fric- 
tion. The  shaft  drive  eliminates  two  bearings,  besides  doing  away 
with  both  chains  and  foul*  sprocket-wheels. 

The  direct  drive  requires  the  use  of  one  or  two  universal  joints  to 
provide  for  any  change  in  alignment  between  the  clutch-shaft  and  the 
rear-axle  drive-shaft.  The  universal  joint  has  been  a  part  of  auto- 
mobile mechanism  that  has  caused  a  great  deal  of  trouble  to  manu- 
facturers whose  design  of  joint  has  not  been  liberally  and  accurately 
proportioned  and  made  of  the  best  material.  These  difficulties  have 
been  overcome  as  designs  of  universal  joints  have  improved;  and 
for  several  years,  every  Vanderbilt  race  has  been  won  with  a  shaft- 


100 


AUTOMOBILES 


.2 


c  » 
Ifl 

fL 

.2-0 .2 


JH    ra 

fe»H 

-Silir 


AUTOMOBILES -  '-'  '> '-  ->  ioi 


driven  car.  The  shaft  drive  can  be  made  dust-proof,  which  can- 
not be  said  of  the  chain  drive.  The  chain  drive  is  much  more  ex- 
posed to  dust,  and  has  many  more  wearing  parts. 

Still  another  type  of  transmission  is  the  so-called  friction 
transmission.  In  this  system,  a  disc  of  from  18  to  30  inches  diameter 
is  keyed  to  the  rear  end  of  the  clutch-shaft.  Its  rotation  is  trans- 
mitted by  means  of  an  intermediate  disc  placed  at  right  angles  to  the 
first  one,  and  through  it  to  a  third  disc  parallel  to  the  first  and  keyed 
to  the  drive-shaft.  The  intermediate  disc  or  cone — or  set  of  them, 
there  being  sometimes  two — is  arranged  so  that  it  can  be  drawn 
outward  or  pushed  inward,  the  rim  thus  bearing  on  the  face  of  the 
disc  mounted  on  the  clutch-shaft,  at  varying  radial  distances  from 
its  center.  As  the  bearing  surface  is  drawn  further  out,  the  rotational 
speed  is  increased.  This  type  of  transmission  is  being  applied  to  an 
increasing  number  of  medium-weight  and  light-weight  cars. 

Fig.  107  is  a  view  of  the  Reo  car  chassis,  showing  a  good  form  of 
single-chain  drive. 

Fig.  108  shows  a  double-chain  drive  as  used  in  the  American 
Locomotive  car. 

Fig.  109  is  a  view  of  the  Studebaker  Model  "L"  chassis,  showing 
direct-drive  shaft  with  two  universal  joints. 

Fig.  110  is  a  view  of  a  two-disc  friction  transmission  with  single- 
chain  drive,  as  used  in  the  Cartercar. 

Cable  drive  is  employed  in  the  Holsman  car,  the  cable  passing 
over  sheave  wheels,  a  small  one  on  the  drive-shaft  and  a  large  one  on 
the  axle. 

Universal  Joints.  Fig.  Ill  shows  in  detail  the  construction 
of  a  universal  joint  as  used  by  the  National  Motor  Vehicle  Company, 
Indianapolis,  Ind.  This  joint  is  located  immediately  in  rear  of  the 
transmission  gear  case,  the  main  steel  portion  A  being  attached 
to  the  shaft  of  the  transmission  by  the  two  keys  B,  indicated  by 
dotted  lines. 

On  the  end  of  this  portion  is  an  annular  bearing  C  held  by  the 
nuts  D,  with  a  lock- washer  E  between  them.  This  bearing,  and 
therefore  the  main  portion  of  the  universal  joint,  are  prevented  from 
pulling  out  of  the  case  by  the  end  adjuster  ring  F  screwed  into  the 
main  bearing  sleeve  G,  and  prevented  from  becoming  unscrewed 
by  the  locking  key  II.  The  driving  shaft  /,  turned  to  a  ball 


II 


11 


AUTOMOBILES 


103 


Fig.  109.    Chassis  of  Studebaker  Model  L,  Car,  Showing  Direct  or  Shaft  Drive,  with 

Two  Universal  Joints. 
Studebaker  Bros.  Mfg.  Co.,  South  Bend,  Ind. 


Fig.  110. 


Two-Disc  Friction  Transmission  as  Used  in  Cartercar. 
Motor  Car  Company,  Detroit,  Mich. 


104 


AUTOMOBILES 


shape  at  one  end,  has  the  hardened  pin  J  running  through  it,  upon 
which  work  two  steel  squares  K  sliding  in  slots  in  the  main  portion 
of  the  joint  A,  thus  permitting  a  universal  movement  and  also  the 
sliding  fore-and-aft  movement  of  the  driving-shaft,  due  to  the  ac- 
tion of  the  springs. 
There  is  a  tu- 
bular sleeve  which 
encloses  the  work- 
ing parts  of  this 
joint,  which  is  held 

\  in    place    by    the 

s^T-  cap  screw  i.     An 

oval  hole  in  the 
sleeve  at  M  allows 
the  removal  of  the 
squares,  and  per- 
mits the  packing 
of  the  joint  with 
grease,  by  turning 
it  through  an  an- 
gle of  90  degrees. 
The  end  of  the 
joint  is  covered 
by  a  cone-shaped 
piece  of  rawhide, 
fastened  at  one 
end  to  the  sleeve  and  at  the  other  end  to  the  drive-shaft.  A  small 
hole  through  the  center  of  the  shaft  allows  some  oil  to  flow  into  the 
joint  from  tKe  transmission  case. 

Differentials  or  Balance  Gears.  When  a  car  is  turning  a  comer 
or  passing  over  uneven  places  in  the  road,  one  rear  wheel  must 
turn  faster  than  the  other.  It  is  necessary  to  provide  mechanical 
means  for  this  unevenness  of  turning,  at  the  same  time  that 
uniform  rotating  power  is  furnished  through  the  drive-shaft  or  driv- 
ing sprocket . 

Figs.  112  and  113  show  how  this  is  accomplished  by  means  of  the 
differential  or  balance  gear.  Fig.  112  is  a  view  of  the  Studebaker 
Model  F  rear  axle,  showing  housing  removed  and  balance  gear  dis- 


Fig.  111.    Details  of  Universal  Joint  in  National  Car. 
National  Motor  Vehicle  Company,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 


AUTOMOBILES 


105 


Fig.  112.    Rear  Axle  Showing  Differential  or  Balance  Gear  as  Used  in 

Studebaker  Model  F  Car. 
Studebaker  Bros.  Mfg.  Co.,  South  Bend,  Ind. 

sected.  The  small  bevel  pinion  in  the  center  of  the  cut  is  attached 
to  the  driving  shaft.  It  meshes  with  the  large  bevel  gear.  On  the 
inside  of  this  bevel  gear,  is  fastened  a  plate  on  which  are  mounted  on 
short  projecting  shafts  a  number  of  small  pinions,  which  mesh  with 
gears  fitting  onto  the  square  ends  of  the  right  and  left  rear  axles 
respectively.  The  amount  of  force  transmitted  is  equal  toward  both 


Fig.  113.    Peerless  Differential  Gear. 
Peerless  Motor  Car  Company,  Cleveland,  Ohio 


106  AUTOMOBILES 


sides,  and  variations  of  speed  between  the  two  rear  wheels  are  taken 
care  of  by  rotation  of  the  small  pinions  in  opposite  directions.  Fig. 
1 13  is  a  view  of  the  Peerless  differential.  The  principles  of  action  are  the 
same  as  in  the  one  just  described,  the  only  difference  being  that  small 
pinions  carried  on  the  large  driven  bevel  gear  are  located  directly 
in  the  center  of  the  rear  axle  in  line  with  the  driving  pinion. 

Owing  to  the  heavy   strain   on   the  large  driven  bevel  gear, 


Fig.  114.    Rear- Axle  Construction  on  Maxwell  Car,  Showing  Roller  Thrust 

to  Relieve  Strain  on  Large  Driven  Bevel  Gear  of  Differential 

Maxwell-Briscoe  Motor  Company,  Tarrytown,  N.  Y. 

a  number  of  makes  provide  a  thrust  roller-bearing  against  the 
back  of  the  large  bevel  gear— that  is,  on  the  side  opposite  the 
teeth. 

Fig.  114  is  a  view  of  the  rear  axle  of  the  Maxwell  car,  showing 
this  roller  thrust. 

LUBRICATION 

Pipes  for  lubrication  should  not  be  too  small.  Sharp  turns  in 
oil  pipe-lines  should  be  avoided. 

Oil  and  Oiling.  The  life  and  amount  of  service  and  sat- 
isfaction to  be  obtained  from  a  motor  depend  very  largely  on  the 
amount  and  quality  of  the  oil  used.  The  proper  gas-engine  cylin- 
der oil  should  have  a  flash  point  of  about  500  or  600  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  and  should  contain  only  the  minimum  amount  of  car- 
bon. It  should  always  be  filled  at  the  temperature  used.  This  ne- 
cessitates using  a  different  weight  of  oil  in  warm  weather  from  that 


AUTOMOBILES  107 


used  in  cold  weather.  For  warm  weather,  use  a  heavy  oil;  and  as 
the  weather  grows  cooler,  change  to  a  lighter  oil. 

A  teaspoonful  of  powdered  graphite  mixed  with  a  little  water 
inserted  through  the  relief-pipe,  will  occasionally  help  greatly  to  re- 
duce the  amount  of  oil  used. 

The  oil  should  be  entirely  drawn  from  the  engine  case  about  once 
a  month,  and  all  of  the  parts  washed  with  kerosene.  In  refilling 
with  oil,  it  should  be  deep  enough  so  that  when  the  connecting  rods 
are  down  they  will  dip  into  the  oil  about  J  inch. 

After  cleaning,  running  the  engine  for  a  few  revolutions  with 
the  case  filled  with  kerosene  will  cut  out  any  oil  which  may  have 
become  gummed  on  the  cylinders  or  about  the  piston  rings. 

If  the  motor  has  not  been  run  for  some  time,  this  should  be  done. 
If  the  motor  is  in  constant  service,  it  is  not  necessary,  though  it  will 
do  no  harm. 

For  the  transmission  gears  and  differential  gears,  use  a  heavy 
oil  corresponding  to  a  steam-engine  cylinder  oil  of  cheap  grade. 
Each  of  these  gear  cases  should  be  about  one-third  full.  For  univer- 
sal joints,  use  Albany  grease.  This  is  better  than  vaseline,  as  a 
slight  heat  transforms  vaseline  into  liquid,  and  it  runs  out. 

If  springs  squeak,  force  a  small  quantity  of  oil  into  the  joints. 

There  is  usually  altogether  too  much  lubricating  oil  applied  to 
an  engine.  Six  to  eight  drops  a  minute  is  ample  for  cylinder  lubri- 
cation. 

Chains,  after  having  been  thoroughly  cleaned  with  kerosene, 
are  dipped  into  melted  tallow,  and  replaced  after  the  tallow  is 
cooled. 

Forgetting  to  lubricate  bearings  is  likely  to  cause  firing  of 
bearings,  or  hot  boxes,  which  will  necessitate  stopping  and  delay. 

The  greatest  drawback  to  the  success  of  air-cooled  motors,  it 
has  been  claimed,  is  the  problem  of  lubrication.  The  following 
method  is  adopted  in  the  Marmon  car  to  solve  this  problem: 

The  crank-shaft  is  drilled  with  one-inch  holes  from  end  to  end  through 
the  main  bearings  and  through  the  four  crank-pins.  Three-eighths-inch  holes 
are  drilled  through  the  arms  of  the  cranks,  connecting  with  the  one-inch  holes. 
It  is  claimed  .that  this  drilling  does  not  weaken  the  shaft — in  fact,  that  it 
strengthens  it  by  removing  internal  strains  on  the  forging.  After  the  drilling 
is  done,  the  outer  ends  of  all  the  holes,  except  the  one  in  the  fore  end  of  the 
shaft,  are  plugged,  thus  forming  a  continuous  oil  passageway  from  the  forward 


108 


AUTOMOBILES 


end  entirely  through  the  shaft  into  the  rear  main  bearing.  The  crank-shaft  is 
then  drilled  with  radial  holes  at  the  center  of  every  bearing,  and  these  holes  lead 
the  oil  from  within  the  shaft  directly  into  the  bearing.  A  pump  draws  the  oil 
through  a  screen  from  the  bottom  of  the  oil  well,  and  forces  it  through  a  tube 
into  the  end  of  the  crank-shaft,  maintaining  a  uniform  pressure  constantly. 
It  is  claimed  that  oil  smoke  is  never  seen  coming  from  the  muffler  of  an  engine 
with  this  type  of  lubrication. 

Mechanically  Operated  Lubricators.     Gravity  and  pressure  sys- 
tems of  lubrication  depend  upon  needle-valves,  and  the  oil  supply 


Fig.  1 15.    External  View  of  McCord  Force-Feed  Lubricator  (Six  Feeds) ; 

Polished  Sheet-Brass  Reservoir,  Rotary  Drive. 

McCord  &  Company,  Chicago,  111. 

is  the  same  for  all  speeds.  Needle-valve  regulation  is  difficult, 
because  it  is  interfered  with  by  the  slightest  particle  of  foreign  matter 
in  the  oil  and  by  temperature  changes.  An  engine  running  at  high 
speed  requires  more  oil  than  at  slow  speed.  Too  much  oil  gums 
the  bearings  and  cylinders,  and  increases  friction;  and  with  too  little 
oil,  they  are  liable  to  damage.  Oil  for  automobile  lubrication  has 
to  pass  through  a  number  of  feet  of  small  tubing  before  it  reaches 


AUTOMOBILES 


109 


the  points  of  lubrication,  and  requires  in  some  cases   to  be  delivered 
against  pressure. 

To  provide  for  all  of  these  problems,  mechanically  operated 
lubricators  have  been  devised,  which  consist  of  pumps  driven  by 
some  mechanism 
connected  to  the  en- 
gine, so  that  when 
the  engine  starts  the 
oiling  begins  at 
once,  being  so  reg- 
ulated that  it  varies 
in  proportion  with 
the  engine  speed 
and  stops  when  the 
engine  stops. 

Figs.  115  and 
116  are  external  and 
sectional  internal 
views,  respectively, 
of  the  McCord 
Force-Feed  Lubri- 
cator. This  lubri- 
cator consists  of  a 
rectangular  reser- 
voir and  cover,  pro- 
vided with  a  filling 
opening  closed  by 
a  plug  U,  the  oil, 
when  poured  into 
the  reservoir,  pass- 
ing through  a  perforated  sheet-metal  strainer  V  which  prevents 
any  solid  particles  from  getting  into  the  tank.  The  force-feed  mech- 
anism consists  of  pumps  C  and  D.  The  stroke  of  the  pump  C 
can  be  adjusted  from  the  top  of  the  lubricator  without  removing  the 
cover.  The  second  pump  D  has  a  constant  stroke,  and  forces  the 
oil  after  it  has  dropped  through  the  sight-feed  glasses  Q  onward  to 
the  point  of  lubrication.  At  the  bottom  of  the  sight-feed  glasses,  a 
gauze  screen  is  placed  as  an  additional  protection  to  prevent  even  the 


Fig.  116.    Construction  and  Operation  of  Mechanically 

Operated  Force-Feed  Lubricator. 

A— Reservoir:  B— Pump;  C— Pump  Plunger,  Suction ;  Z>— 
Pump  Plunger,  Delivery;  E—  Driving  Yoke;  /^—Driving 
Yoke  Fulcrum:  £— Regulating  Stem;  //—Regulating  Stem 
Spring:  /—Regulating  Button;  ,7—  Eccentric  Shaft:  A'— Worm 
Gear;  Z— Worm;  M— Stuffing  Box;  N—  Stuffing  Box  Gland; 
0— Driving  Wheel:  P—  Sight-Feed  Glass  Socket;  ^—Sight- 
Feed  Glass;  /?— Sight-Feed  Glass  Cap;  S— Sight-Feed  Nozzle; 
/'—Cover:  U—  Strainer  Plug ;  F— Strainer-  W—  Outlet  Union 
Nipple ;  X—  Studs ;  Y—  Stuffing-Box  Gland  Lock-Nut. 
McCord  &  Company,  Chicago,  111. 


AUTOMOBILES  111 


smallest  particle  of  foreign  matter  from  being  forced  to  the  bearings. 
This  is  in  full  view  of  the  operator,  and  can  be  removed  and  cleaned 
by  taking  off  the  brass  cap.  These  sight-feed  glasses  are  simply  a 
protecting  case  for  the  oil  drops,  and  contain  no  liquid  adhering  to 
the  glass,  which  has  always  been  a  great  disadvantage  in  the  liquid 
sight-feed  glasses.  The  amount  of  oil  being  pumped  is  at  all  times 
visible  to  the  operator.  The  operation  is  as  follows: 

The  pumps  are  driven  by  the  eccentric  J  and  adjustable  lever  E,  by 
means  of  a  worm  gear  K  connected  to  the  cam-shaft  or  other  rotating  part  of 
the  engine  by  the  pulley  or  sprocket  0.  (In  some  lubricators  this  wheel  is  a 
thin  ratchet  wheel  actuated  by  a  pawl.)  The  stroke  of  supply-pump  C  is 
varied  (thus  increasing  or  diminishing  the  amount  of  oil  pumped)  by  means 
of  the  sliding  arm  F,  which  forms  a  movable  fulcrum  for  the  pump-lever  E. 
When  the  regulating  stem  G  is  screwed  down,  the  fulcrum  is  raised  and  the 
stroke  of  the  pump-piston  is  lengthened.  Lowering  the  fulcrum  decreases  the 
stroke  of  the  pump-piston  and  diminishes  the  amount  of  oil  pumped.  This 
pump  delivers  oil  through  the  oil  standpipe  S,  from  which  it  drops  to  the  de- 
livery pump  D  attached  to  the  jaws  of  the  operating  lever.  The  stroke  of  this 
pump  is  constant,  and  every  drop  of  oil  which  falls  into  the  pump  chamber 
must  be  forced  out  through  the  delivery  pipe  W  and  on  to  the  point  of  lubri- 
cation. 

With  the  car  running  from  fifteen  to  twenty  miles  an  hour,  each 
cylinder  oiler  should  show  ten  drops  per  minute. 

As  a  typical  illustration  of  where  lubrication  should  be  applied, 
and  how  often,  it  will  be  well  to  study  carefully  Figs.  117  and  118, 
which  show  plan  view  and  side  elevation  respectively  of  the  Peerless 
car,  with  lubricating  points  plainly  designated. 

For  this  car  the  following  lubricating  instructions  are  given: 

DAILY  OIL  AND  GREASE 

Eight  grease  cups  should  be  given  careful  attention  by  the  opera- 
tor. These  are  located  as  follows:  (1)  On  the  right  of  the  water 
pump,  exhaust  side  of  motor;  (2)  and  (3)  on  the  front  end  and  rear 
end  of  the  connecting  rod  which  joins  the  steering  column  with  the 
steering  knuckles ;  (4)  on  the  outside  of  the  casing  enclosing  the  worm 
and  sector  mechanism  at  base  of  steering  column;  (5)  on  the  crank- 
ing device  directly  under  the  radiator  well  in  front;  (6)  on  the  collar 
behind  the  spring  on  the  clutch;  (7)  on  fan-shaft;  and  (8)  on  driving- 
shaft  between  clutch  and  transmission.  The  above-mentioned  grease 
cups  should  be  filled  with  grease  and  screwed  up  a  turn  every  day 


AUTOMOBILES  113 


before  starting  on  a  trip.     When  the  caps  have  been  screwed  down 
as  far  as  possible,  unscrew,  and  fill  again  with  grease. 

Small  oil-cups  are  located  in  the  following  positions: 

Top  of  case  covering  half-time  shaft  to  water-pump. 
On  brass  cover  operating  drive  to  main  oil-pump. 
At  end  of  all  springs,  to  allow  easy  working  of  springs. 
On  the  steering  knuckles  and  at  ends  of  cross-rod  attached  to  steering 
knuckles. 

On  all  rods  pertaining  to  the  brake  and  clutch  mechanism. 
On  all  knuckles  pertaining  to  the  brakes. 

An  oil-cup  is  located  on  top  of  the  shaft  in  the  commutator  box. 
This  should  be  given  attention  at  frequent  intervals,  to  have  the 
bearings  well  lubricated.  Half-way  down  the  vertical  casing  carry- 
ing the  commutator  shaft,  is  another  small  oil-hole.  This  shaft 
should  be  oiled  occasionally. 

The  slots  through  which  the  brake-equalizers  work  should  have 
some  oil  occasionally. 

The  entire  lubricating  system  should  be  thoroughly  gone  over 
every  month,  to  insure  perfect  running  of  the  car.  Too  much  oil  is 
better  than  too  little,  and  it  is  advisable  that  the  operator  give  this 
his  most  careful  attention. 

Oil  in  Crank=Case.  The  correct  level  of  the  oil  in  the  crank-case 
is  regulated  by  standpipes  connected  with  pet-cocks  underneath  the 
crank-case.  Before  starting  on  a  run,  it  is  important  to  know  that 
the  crank-case  is  properly  filled.  Open  both  crank-case  oil  gauge- 
cocks;  and  if  the  oil  runs  out,  allow  it  to  run  until  the  excess  is  all 
withdrawn.  If  the  oil  does  not  run  out  of  the  pet-cocks,  fill  the 
crank-case  through  the  vent-pipes  until  the  oil  commences  to  drain 
off  through  the  pet-cocks.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  open  the 
crank-case  drain-cocks. 

Transmission.  The  transmission  case  should  be  filled  with 
about  five  pounds  of  grease  to  which  is  added  about  a  quart  of  light 
paraffine  oil.  This  lubricates  the  shafts,  yokes,  levers,  and  in  fact 
all  wearing  parts.  The  four  bearings  are  lubricated  by  a  manifold 
oiler  located  at  the  front  of  the  transmission  case.  This  manifold 
should  be  filled  before  starting  on  a  trip.  An  oil-hole  in  the  cover 
of  the  transmission  case  allows  opportunity  to  refill  the  transmission 
with  grease  and  oil  at  any  time  it  is  deemed  necessary.  This  should 
be  at  least  once  a  month. 


114 


AUTOMOBILES 


At  the  end  of  three  months  the  top  of  the  transmission  case 
should  be  removed,  and  the  case  flushed  with  kerosene  and  refilled 
with  grease  and  oil.  This  may  be  done  by  drawing  off  the  oil  through 
the  drain-plug  at  the  bottom  of  the  transmission  case. 

Universal  Joints.  The  universal  joints  between  the  clutch  and 
transmission  and  between  the  transmission  and  the  rear  axle  are 
packed  in  grease,  and  housed  in  leather  cases  held  securely  in  place 
by  a  brass  band  easily  removable  for  replenishing  with  grease.  This 
should  be  done  about  once  in  two  months. 

Wheels.    The  wheels  should  be  taken  off,  cleaned,  and  packed 

with  grease  about 
once  in  two  months 
or  of tener,  depending 
on  usage.  The  oilers 
on  top  of  the  rear 
and  front  hubs  should 
be  filled  daily. 

Differential.  Un- 
der ordinary  condi- 
tions the  bevel  and 
differential  gears 
should  be  cleaned 
once  in  three  months. 
The  cover  of  these 
gears  should  be  taken  off,  and  all  the  old  grease  removed  and 
the  gears  carefully  packed  with  new  grease,  care  being  taken  to  see 
that  the  grease  is  well  worked  in.  The  differential  case  holds  about 
seven  pounds  of  grease.  By  means  of  a  plug  in  the  differential  case, 
it  should  be  replenished  with  grease  and  oil  at  least  once  a  month. 

BRAKES 

Most  cars  are  provided  with  two  brakes — one  known  as  the 
ordinary  brake,  and  the  other  as  the  emergency  brake.  It  is  most 
convenient  for  the  operator  to  have  the  ordinary  brake  operated  by  a 
foot-pedal,  and  the  emergency  brake  by  means  of  a  lever. 

Formerly  one  of  the  brakes  was  applied  to  the  clutch  or  drive- 
shaft.  This  method  has  been  found  to  throw  an  undue  strain  on 
these  parts,  and  the  best  modern  practice  is  in  favor  of  internal  and 


Fig.  119.    Rear  Wheel  of  Studebaker  Model  G  Car, 

Showing  Hub  Drum  and  Brake. 
Studebaker  Bros.  Mfg.  Co.,  South  Bend,  Ind. 


AUTOMOBILES  115 


external  brake-bands  acting  on  hub  drums  on  the  rear  wheels,  one  of 
these  serving  as  the  ordinary  brake,  and  the  other  as  the  emergency. 

Fig.  119  shows  the  rear  wheel  of  the  Studebaker  Model  G  car, 
showing  location  of  hub  drum  and  brake. 

Fig.  120  shows  the  internal  and  external  brake  system  of  the 
Peerless  car.  In  this  car  the  brakes  act  on  a  drum  on  each  wheel,  being 
operated  through  equalizers  which  give  an  even  pressure  on  each 


E  SHOE  LEVER 


Fig.  120.    Internal  and  External  Brake  System  of  Peerless  Gar,  Showing 

.    Details  Connected  with  Operation. 
Peerless  Motor  Car  Company.  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

wearing  surface.  The  foot-brakes  are  made  of  steel  bands,  fiber- 
lined,  and  operate  on  the  drums  externally.  When  not  engaged,  the 
external  bands  are  kept  from  the  drum  by  means  of  springs  at  top  and 
rear. 

The  emergency  hand-brake  operated  by  the  outside  lever  on  the 
right-hand  side  of  the  car,  engages  the  drums  internally.  These 
brakes  are  bronze  bands  expanded  by  a  wedged  cam-lever.  These 
brakes  are  held  away  from  the  drum  by  means  of  springs,  as  shown 
in  the  figure. 

After  a  time  it  may  be  found  necessary  to  adjust  these  brakes  to 
take  up  for  wear.  This  may  be  done  by  screwing  up  the  brake-rod 
clevises  to  the  rear  of  the  equalizers,  until  the  proper  adjustment  is 
reached.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  screw  up  these  clevises  so  far 
that  the  band  will  drag  on  the  drum.  By  jacking  up  the  axle  so  that 


116  AUTOMOBILES 


the  wheels  clear  the  floor,  and  spinning  the  wheels  around  by  hand 
with  the  brakes  in  released  position,  it  may  be  readily  noticed  if 
there  is  any  dragging  action. 

Fig.  121  shows  a  brake  drum  of  the  Premier  car,  with  details 
of  the  internal  expanding  and  external  contracting  brakes. 

BEARINGS 

Bearings    are   either   plain   cylindrical,    cylindrical   in   halves, 

roller  bearings,  ball  bearings,  or  annular. 

Plain  cylindrical  bearings  are  usually  bronze  sleeves,  and  are 

used  at  points  where  no  adjustment  is  expected  to  be  necessary. 

Cylindrical  bronze  bearings 
cast  in  halves,  the  halves  being 
separated  by  shims  of  soft  metal 
or  leather  liners,  are  used  in 
various  parts  of  different  makes 
of  cars,  a  good  many  cars  using 
this  type  in  the  main  or  crank- 
shaft bearings  of  the  engine. 
In  this  type  a  moderate  amount 
of  wear  may  be  taken  up  by 
tightening  the  cap  screws  which 
fasten  the  halves  of  the  jour- 
nal-boxes  together.  A  greater 

Premier  Motor  Mfg.  Co.,  Indianapolis,  Ind.  „  1,1 

amount  ot  wear  may  be  taken 

up  by  removing  the  liners  or  shims,  and  replacing  with  others  some- 
what thinner. 

Fig.  122  shows  the  American  Ball  Bearing  Company's  front  hub. 
The  nut  A,  which  adjusts  the  cone  D  on  the  right-hand  axle,  is  pro- 
vided with  a  right-hand  thread,  and  the  set  screw  B  has  a  left-hand 
thread.  The  dust  cap  C  has  a  left-hand  thread.  All  of  these  parts 
on  the  left-hand  axle  are  reversely  threaded.  To  remove  front  wheels, 
unscrew  brass  cap  (7;  and  by  means  of  a  hexagon  wrench,  unscrew 
adjusting  nut  A,  but  do  not  alter  the  position  of  set  screw  B.  When 
replacing  wheels,  be  sure  that  the  ground  angular  surface  on  cone 
D  is  in  contact  with  the  balls.  The  nut  A  should  be  set  firmly. 

To  adjust  front  wheel  bearings,  proceed  as  above;  withdraw  the  set 
screw  B-,  screw  on  the  adjusting  nut  A  until  the  adjustment  is  right. 


AUTOMOBILES 


117 


Now  turn  off  the  nut  A  about  one  half-revolution  and  tighten  the 
set  screw  B.  If  there  is  lost  motion  in  the  bearing,  loosen  nut  A, 
back  out  screw  B 
a  little,  and  tighten 
nut  A  again.  A 
bearing  is  properly 
adjusted  only  when 
screw  B  makes  it 
impossible  to  force 
nut  A  on  any  fur- 
ther, and  all  lost 
motion  is  out  of 
the  bearing,  but 
without  being  tight. 
Remember  that  one 
can  easily  put  tons 
of  useless  and 
harmful  pressure 
on  the  bearings  with  careless  use  of  the  wrench. 

Fig.  123  shows  the  Timken  roller  bearing  as  applied  to  the 
Franklin  car.  The  part  of  the  cut  at  right  shows  a  correct  adjust- 
ment, and  the  part  at  left,  a  faulty  adjustment  of  this  bearing.  To 


Fig.  122.    Bali-Bearing  Front  Hub. 
American  Ball  Company,  Providence,  R.  I. 


Fig.  133.     Timken  Roller  Bearing  as  Used  in  Franklin  Car. 

be  correct,  the  axle  lock-nut  A  must  be  locked  tight  against  the 
shoulder  B  on  the  spindle.  When  the  nut  is  against  this  shoulder, 
the  wheel  must  revolve  freely  without  side  play.  In  making  the  ad- 
justment, if  the  wheel  becomes  tight  before  the  nut  shoulders,  the 


118 


AUTOMOBILES 


cone  C  is  too  long,  and  must  be  ground  off  on  its  face.  If,  after  the 
nut  A  is  screwed  up  tight  against  the  shoulder,  there  is  side  play  in 
the  wheel,  the  cone  C  is  too  short;  and  the  correct  length  must  be 


Fig.  124.    Hyatt  Roller  Bearing  as  Used  in  Transmission  Case. 
Hyatt  Roller  Bearing  Company,  Harrison,  N.  J. 

made   up   by  placing  one   or  more  thin  metal  washers  between  C 
and  A,   until    the  bearing   has   no   side    play,    and    the    nut  A  is 

tight  against  the  shoulder  B. 

A  bearing  incorrectly  adjusted, 
as  shown  in  the  left  part  of 
the  cut,  will  act  as  follows:  As 
the  wheel  revolves  forward,  fric- 
tion is  exerted  by  the  cone  C  upon 
the  nut  A,  causing  it  to  screw  in 
toward  the  shoulder.  This  forces 
the  cone  C  up  on  the  spindle,  and 
jams  the  rollers  D  so  that  they 
will  break  and  thus  destroy  the 
bearing. 

Fig.  124  shows  the  Hyatt  roller 
bearing  as  applied  to  a  trans- 
mission gear  case;  and  Fig.  125  shows  a  Hyatt  standard  shaft-box. 
Bearings  of  this  type  are  very  generally  used  in  transmission  cases  and 
also  in  rear  axles.  They  have  the  advantage  of  not  requiring  as 
much  attention  as  plain  bearings,  in  the  way  of  lubrication;  also  the 
advantage  of  flexibility,  enabling  them  at  all  times  to  present  a  bearing 


Fig.  125.    H 


r,.  125.    Hyatt  Standard  Bushing 
yatt  Roller  Bearing  Company, 
Harrison,  N.  J. 


AUTOMOBILES 


119 


along  the  entire  length,  resulting  in  a  uniform  distribution  of  load.   Fig. 
126  shows  an  annular  ball  bearing;  and  Fig.  127  shows  how  annular  ball 
bearings   are    used 
on  the  crank-shaft 
in  the  Corbin  car. 
The  annular  type  of 
ball  bearing  is  dis- 
placing   the    plain 

3  ball  bearing,  as  the 

'caging  of  the  balls 
results  in  a  minimiz- 
ing of  wear,  mak- 
ing them,  bearings 
that  do  not  require 


any  adjustment. 


Fig.  126.    Annular  Ball  Bearing. 

Silent  Type  with  Cage  Spacer. 

Standard  Roller  Bearing  Company,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


WHAT  TO  DO  TO  A  NEW  CAR 

The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  see  that  oil  is  provided  at  all  parts 
where  one  piece  moves  on  another.  Next  remove  the  plug  or  screw 
top  of  water  tank,  insert  a  funnel,  and-  fill  with  clean  water.  In 
freezing  weather,  some  anti-freezing  solution  must  be  used.  There 
are  various  such  solutions  on  the  market,  some  of  them  consisting 


Fig.  127.    Annular  Ball  Bearings  Applied  to  Crank-Shaft. 
Corbin  Motor  Vehicle  Corporation,  New  Britain,  Conn. 

of  oils,  and  others  mostly  glycerine.  In  case  there  is  a  standpipe 
in  the  water  line,  with  a  cock  at  the  top,  open  this  cock  to  permit  the 
entrained  air  to  escape,  being  sure  to  close  this  cock  again  after  the 
tank  has  been  filled. 

In  case  of  an  air-cooled  engine,  the  above  instructions  in  regard 
to  water  are  of  course  unnecessary. 

Next  remove  plug  or  screw-top  from  gasoline  tank,  insert  a 
separate  funnel,  and  fill  with  clean,  fresh  gasoline,  straining  it  through 


120  AUTOMOBILES 


a  screen  or  preferably  a  chamois  skin  in  the  funnel;  then  replace  the 
gasoline  and  water-plugs  or  screw-tops,  seeing  that  they  are  firmly 
but  not  too  tightly  fastened. 

See  that  the  cock  in  the  gasoline  line  leading  from  tank  to  car- 
bureter is  opened,  and  try  whether  gasoline  flows  freely  to  carbureter, 
by  pressing  down  the  primer  until  gasoline  flows  from  the  carbureter. 
If  a  motor  has  been  stopped  only  a  short  time,  it  will  not  be  neces- 
sary to  make  use  of  the  primer.  In  fact  it  is  undesirable  to  use  the 
primer  when  the  engine  is  still  warm,  as  it  is  likely  to  give  too  rich 
a  mixture,  and  such  a  mixture  will  not  explode. 

See  that  all  oil-cups  are  full,  and  that  they  are  adjusted  to  feed 
approximately  15  drops  per  minute. 

See  that  the  transmission  is  provided  with  a  good  supply  of 
heavy  oil.  This  will  require  attention  about  once  a  week.  In  cold 
weather  a  lighter  oil  will  be  required  here  than  in  warm  weather. 

TO  START  THE  ENGINE ' 

First,  disengage  the  clutches. 

Second,  put  on  the  brakes. 

Third,  open  the  throttle  slightly. 

Fourth,  turn  the  switch  handle  to  the  "On"  position. 

Fifth,  push  the  spark-lever  away  back  to  its  point  of  greatest 
retardation  or  lateness. 

Sixth,  when  the  engine  is  cool,  it  may  sometimes  be  necessary 
to  prime  the  carbureter  slightly  by  lifting  the  carbureter  float-needle. 
This  is  provided  for  in  different  ways  in  different  cars  and  different 
carbureters.  In  some  cases  a  rod  is  made  to  extend  from  the  car- 
bureter to  some  convenient  point,  such  as  the  floor  or  dash  or  side 
of  the  car,  this  rod  being  so  arranged  that  by  pushing  it  the  float- 
valve  of  the  carbureter  is  opened.  Do  not  prime  too  much,  as  you 
are  likely  to  get  too  much  gasoline  at  the  start;  and  the  only  remedy 
for  this  is  the  tiresome  process  of  repeatedly  cranking  until  all  of  the 
too  rich  mixture  has  been  pumped  through  your  engine. 

Seventh,  turn  the  crank  clockwise,  pulling  upwards  with  a  quick, 
sharp  pull.  Never  push  downward.  The  reason  for  this  is  that 
if  the  spark  is  accidentally  advanced,  the  charge  may  explode  before 
dead  center,  and  kick  backwards,  resulting  in  the  straining  or  break- 
ing of  the  operator's  arm. 


AUTOMOBILES  121 


Make  sure  that  spark  lever  is  away  back,  that  switch  is  turned 
on,  and  that  you  can  hear  the  vibrator  buzz  every  time  the  engine 
goes  over  compression.  A  weak  battery  will  cause  faint  buzzing. 

Failure  to  Start.  Should  the  engine  not  start  at  a  few  turns 
of  the  crank,  it  is  of  no  use  to  work  one's  self  tired  keeping  on  crank- 
ing. It  is  best  to  see  whether  the  batteries  have  been  switched  on, 
whether  the  gasoline  is  turned  on,  and  if  the  ignition  is  at  the  right 
point.  It  may  be  that  the  carbureter  is  flooded,  delivering  too  rich 
a  mixture.  In  this  case,  considerable  cranking  will  be  necessary  in 
order  to  empty  the  engine  of  the  excess  of  gasoline,  the  supply  being 
shut  off  during  this  cranking. 

Other  possible  causes  of  failure  to  start  are  a  sooty  spark-plug 
or  dirty  commutator.  Note  whether  the  spark-coil  on  the  dash  buzzes 
during  the  cranking.  If  so,  it  indicates  that  the  ignition  coil  and 
connections  are  not  at  fault.  More  likely  the  reason  will  be  that  the 
spark-plugs  are  dirty  or  sooty.  Remove  the  plugs,  and  insert  new 
ones,  which  should  always  be  kept  on  hand.  The  plugs  removed 
can  readily  be  cleaned  and  used  in  their  turn  for  replacement,  if 
the  plugs  in  use  become  fouled.  Excessive  cold,  or  water  in  the 
gasoline,  or  faulty  compression,  are  possible  causes. 

The  carbureter  may  be  empty  There  may  be  dirt  in  the  pipes 
or  carbureter.  Gasoline  in  the  carbureter  may  be  stale.  Drain  and 
clean  the  carbureter,  and  give  it  a  charge  of  fresh  gasoline.  The 
valves  may  be  gummy  and  need  cleaning.  For  instructions  regard- 
ing carbureters,  see  pages  55  and  61. 

The  springs  of  the  inlet  valves  may  be  too  strong  and  may  need 
loosening.  For  instructions  in  regard  to  valves,  see  page  56. 


AUTOMOBILES 

PART  III 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  OPERATING  ENGINE 

The  speed  of  the  engine  is  controlled  by  either  or  both  of  two 
methods.  One  of  these  methods  is  by  means  of  the  throttle  rod. 
The  operation  of  this  rod  increases  or  decreases  the  size  of  the  opening 
into  the  cylinder  through  which  the  explosive  mixture  of  air  and 
gasoline  must  pass,  thereby  increasing  or  decreasing  the  amount  of 
the  charge,  which  has  a  corresponding  effect  on  the  speed  and  power 
of  the  car.  Under  the  heading  of  "Carbureters"  will  be  .found  de- 
scription of  further  speed-control  as  accomplished  by  adjusting  the 
amount  of  the  charge,  and  by  adjusting  also  the  relative  amount  of 
air  in  the  mixture. 

The  other  method  of  controlling  the  speed  and  power  of  the 
engine  is  to  change  the  time  of  igniting  the  compressed  charge  of 
gasoline  and  air.  Three  points  should  be  remembered  in  connection 
with  the  timing  of  ignition : 

1.  The  spark-lever,  in  starting,  must  be  as  far  back  as  possible 
in  order  to  give  a  late  spark  and  avoid  an  explosion  that  will  throw 
the  crank  in  a  reverse  direction. 

2.  The  faster  the  engine  runs,  the   further   forward  the   spark 
lever  may  be  placed,  giving  an  earlier  spark. 

3.  When  the  engine  is  slowed  down  on  a  hill  or  a  bad  road,  it 
will  pull  better  and  is  less  liable  to  be  stopped  by  an  overload  if  the 
spark-lever  is  pushed  further  back  than  at  full  speed.      To  keep  the 
spark-lever  just  as  far  forward  as  possible  without  making  the  engine 
pound  or  jerk,  means  a  greater  amount  of  power  for  a  given  amount 
of  gasoline. 

Be  careful  not  to  throw  in  the  engine  power  all  at  once.  This  is 
very  damaging  to  tires  as  well  as  to  engine. 

Loss  of  Power  in  Engine.  An  engine  may  apparently  be  run- 
ning all  right,  and  there  still  may  be  absence  or  loss  of  power.  This 


124  AUTOMOBILES 


condition  is  likely  to  be  caused  by  leaky  compression,  for  one  thing. 
If  caused  at  the  exhaust  or  inlet  valves,  the  valves  will  have  to  be 
re-ground.  The  remedy  for  poor  compression  is  to  stop  the  leaks, 
which  will  be  found  to  be  either  past  the  valves  or  past  the  piston- 
rings.  In  the  case  of  the  valves,  they  can  be  made  tight  by  re-grind- 
ing as  elsewhere  described.  In  the  case  of  the  piston-rings  or  piston 
scoring,  the  remedy  may  be  either  new  piston-rings  or  re-boring  and 
re-grinding  of  the  cylinder  or  cylinders.  Insufficient  oil,  or  running 
the  engine  on  a  too  much  retarded  spark,  are  also  the  causes  of  loss 
of  power.  Another  cause  may  be  that  in  attempting  to  make  the 
engine  absolutely  noiseless,  the  cam  movement  may  have  been  de- 
signed or  altered  so  as  to  do  away  with  clicking  at  the  sacrifice  of 
prompt  valve  action. 

Misfiring  due  to  improper  mixture — namely,  too  much  gasoline 
or  too  much  air — will  cause  loss  of  power.  Weak  batteries  will 
also  cause  irregular  firing  and  loss  of  power,  accompanied  by  con- 
siderable noise  when  the  explosions  do  occur.  A  reserve  supply  of 
batteries  should  always  be  kept  in  the  battery  box.  Loose  connec- 
tions or  short  circuits  will  also  cause  misfiring.  All  connections 
should  be  so  tight  that  no  vibrations  of  the  car  will  loosen  them.  At 
the  time  of  tightening  connections,  they  should  be  perfectly  bright 
and  clean. 

If  a  sudden  break  occurs  in  the  spark-plug  or  wire,  the  trouble 
can  usually  be  located.  An  intermittent  short  circuit  will  cause  a 
sluggish  and  irregular  ignition,  and  is  harder  to  find.  In  this  case  a 
careful  inspection  of  all  wires  needs  to  be  made,  to  see  that  there  is 
no  abrasion  of  the  insulation.  It  sometimes  happens  that  a  wire  is 
broken  inside  the  insulation.  The  break  may  be  located  by  very 
slightly  bending  the  wire  at  very  short  intervals. 

A  pocket  voltmeter  is  used  in  locating  short  circuits.  The  vol- 
tage should  be  the  same  at  all  points  of  the  circuit.  If  the  voltage 
drops,  it  is  a  sign  of  leakage  or  a  short  circuit. 

Other  possible  causes  of  sluggishness  or  loss  of  power  are : 

Dirt  or  water  in  the  carbureter,  which  should  be  drained  and  cleaned. 
The  gasoline  supply-pipe  may  be  choked. 
The  gasoline  may  be  stale. 

There  may  be  a  partial  vacuum  in  the  gasoline  tank  through  lack  of  an 
air-inlet.  The  remedy  for  this  is  to  loosen  the  plug  used  for  filling. 


AUTOMOBILES  125 


Valves  may  be  dirty. 

Valve  spring  may  be  weak. 

Loss  of  power  may  be  caused  by  a  slipping  clutch.  If  clutch  is  of  the 
leather-faced  type,  the  remedy  is  to  clean  the  clutch  with  gasoline  and  apply 
castor  oil  at  night. 

Racing  of  Engine.  This  is  apt  to  occur  if  the  spark  has  been 
advanced  too  far  and  the  engine  accelerated  too  much  for  low  speed. 
Another  cause  is  that  the  clutch  may  be  slipping,  thus  releasing  the 
load. 

Lack  of  Speed  in  Engine.  When  the  engine  lacks  speed,  it  is 
likely  that  the  valves  do  not  open  or  close  at  the  proper  time.  The 
lifters  and  connected  parts  wear  in  time.  The  valve  movement  then 
needs  readjustment;  that  is,  it  needs  readjustment  between  valves  and 
lifters  or  cams.  Loss  in  compression  and  proper  spark  will  also 
affect  speed.  If  the  explosive  charge  is  ignited  just  at  the  moment 
the  engine  is  on  dead  center,  the  fullest  force  of  the  explosion  and 
consequently  highest  speed  are  obtained.  Naturally  the  engine  must 
have  some  momentum  before  the  spark  can  be  used  at  this  position; 
and  failure  to  have  the  spark  occur  sufficiently  early  prevents  full 
realization  of  speed. 

Engine  Stopping  Completely.  Valve  in  gasoline  line  may  be 
loose,  or  may  even  have  turned  so  as  to  be  completely  turned  off. 
Gasoline  may  be  all  out.  Battery  may  be  exhausted.  A  wire  may 
be  disconnected  or  broken.  There  may  be  water  in  the  carbureter. 
Valves  may  be  broken.  Spark-plugs  may  be  broken.  Connecting 
rod  may  be  broken. 

Knocking  of  Engine.  The  engine  will  knock  if  the  ignition  has 
been  advanced  too  much;  also  if  the  engine  is  overheated.  Want  of 
lubrication,  or  poor  oil,  will  cause  knocking.  Water  in  the  cylinder 
will  cause  knocking.  This  indicates  that  there  is  a  leak  of  jacket 
water  into  the  inside  af  the  cylinder.  If  connecting-rod  bearings 
are  down,  engine  will  knock.  Knocking  in  engines  is  also  often 
caused  by  the  carbureter  flooding  while  the  car  is  in  motion;  hence 
one  place  to  test  for  improper  adjustments  with  a  knocking  engine 
is  the  needle-valve  and  float-lever  in  the  carbureter,  as  described  in 
detail  under  "Carbureters." 

Weak  Batteries.  Weak  batteries  are  apt  to  deceive  the  opera- 
tor, as  they  gain  strength  after  a  rest;  and  though  the  engine  is  apt 


126  AUTOMOBILES 


to  start  off  smoothly,  after  a  while  there  will  be  irregular  action  and 
missing  of  explosions.  Naturally  the  first  inspection  would  concern 
the  spark-plugs,  to  see  that  they  are  clean.  The  next  investigation 
would  relate  to  the  wiring,  to  see  that  all  the  connections  are  tight 
and  that  there  is  no  break  in  the  wires.  If  these  are  all  found  in 
good  condition,  it  is  very  likely  that  the  trouble  is  with  the  batteries. 

It  is  customary  to  have  two  sets  of  dry  cells,  using  only  one  set 
until  they  show  signs  of  weakening,  when  the  other  set  should  be 
thrown  into  circuit.  This  is  a  temporary  expedient,  and  should  be 
followed  by  a  replacing  of  the  weakest  dry  cells  by  new  ones. 

A  small  ammeter  is  an  inexpensive  instrument,  and  very  desir- 
able for  testing  the  usefulness  or  worthlessness  of  an  individual  cell. 
If  the  current  is  as  low  as  one-half  the  rated  output  of  the  cell,  the 
cell  should  be  discarded. 

A  low  temperature  will  always  cut  down  the  efficiency  of  dry  cells 
temporarily,  and  in  cold  weather  it  is  often  necessary  to  put  both 
sets  into  circuit.  If  they  still  show  signs  of  weakening,  they  should 
be  thoroughly  warmed,  and  the  higher  temperature  will  temporarily 
raise  the  efficiency. 

It  is  best  to  use  generating  batteries  specially  constructed  for 
automobile  use.  There  are  a  number  of  good  makes  on  the  market. 
Such  cells  are  usually  better  encased,  and  are  built  to  withstand  jarring 
much  better  than  the  cheaper  cells  made  for  house  wiring. 

The  usual  voltage  required  to  give  a  satisfactory  spark  for  igni- 
tion is  from  six  to  ten  volts,  six  being  the  usual  voltage  for  jump- 
sparks,  which  predominate  in  automobile  engines.  Somewhat 
higher  voltage  is  required  for  gasoline-engine  igniting  by  the  make- 
and-break  system. 

Voltage  means  simply  pressure;  ampere-hours  means  the  capac- 
ity. For  greater  mileage,  do  not  increase  the  voltage,  but  provide 
greater  battery  capacity — that  is,  greater  ampere-hours. 

The  usual  life  of  a  battery  of  twenty  ampere-hours  capacity  is 
300  miles  in  a  four-cylinder  engine,  500  miles  with  a  two-cylinder 
engine,  and  800  miles  with  a  single-cylinder  engine. 

Noise.  In  a  gasoline  car,  there  is  bound  to  be  some  sound 
present,  owing  to  the  explosions  of  the  engine  and  the  working  of 
the  gears  or  chains.  The  latter  should  never  be  more  than  a  hum, 
and  at  that  it  should  not  be  a  loud  or  annoying  hum.  Correctly  cut 


AUTOMOBILES  127 


gears  in  proper  alignment  will  make  but  very  little  sound.     If  there  is 
grating  or  rattling,  there  is  something  wrong. 

The  clicking  of  valves  cannot  be  done  away  with.  It  is  es- 
sential that  valves  seat  quickly,  and  not  gradually;  and  this  prompt 
action  means  a  sharp  click. 

A  clatter  or  grind  in  the  gear-box  indicates  that  the  pinions  are 
loose. 

An  overheated  engine  will  rattle. 

Noise  caused  by  firing  in  the  carbureter  is  due  to  a  late  spark 
or  weak  mixture. 

Noise  caused  by  explosions  in  the  muffler  is  due  to  too  rich  a 
mixture. 

Loose  fenders  cause  an  annoying  rattle,  which  is  very  easily  dis- 
posed of  if  the  method  of  attachment  is  one  that  permits  of  the  use 
of  washers  or  lock-nuts  or  some  means  of  really  tight  and  permanent 
fastening.  The  method  of  attachment  of  fenders,  in  many  other- 
wise high-grade  cars,  is  not  looked  after  in  a  manner  that  will  obviate 
annoyance  due  to  rattling. 

A  popping  noise  indicates  bad  carburetion.  The  carbureter 
may  be  flooded  or  have  insufficient  supply.  The  inlet  valve  may  be 
sticking  open,  or  its  spring  may  be  weak. 

A  metallic  or  puffing  noise  indicates  that  a  joint  in  the  exhaust 
pipes  has  given  out.  See  also  under  the  heading  "Knocking  of 
Engine." 

Explosions.  These  are  traceable  to  short  circuits;  to  exhausted 
batteries;  to  one  or  more  cylinders  not  working,  because  of  lack  of 
ignition  in  them  resulting  from  broken  or  sooty  plugs  or  other  local 
troubles  in  one  of  the  cylinders,  or  from  faulty  carburetion. 

Escaping  Water.  If  there  is  dropping  of  water,  or  a  pool  of 
water  is  noticed  after  car  has  stood  a  while,  it  is  a  sign  of  a  burst 
water-pipe  or  loose  connections. 

Back=Firing.  By  back-firing  of  the  engine  is  meant  that  when 
the  explosion  takes  place,  the  engine  fly-wheel  is  rotated  in  the  oppo- 
site direction  from  that  in  which  it  should  rotate.  It  is  caused  by 
a  spark  or  ignition  taking  place  too  early  in  the  stroke.  After  the 
engine  is  run  some  time,  the  spark  is  made  to  come  earlier  in  the 
stroke,  or  is  retarded,  until  ignition  takes  place  just  before  the  engine 
is  on  dead  center,  the  momentum  of  the  engine  carrying  it  forward. 


128  AUTOMOBILES 


If  the  engine  is  at  rest,  however,  and  the  spark  is  in  a  retarded  posi- 
tion, the  tendency  will  be  to  drive  the  engine  backward;  and  even  an 
experienced  hand  at  cranking  is  likely  not  to  be  quick  enough  to 
avoid  a  sprained  wrist,  a  dislocated  arm,  or  a  blow  in  the  face  from 
the  crank.  In  turning  the  crank,  force  of  pressure  should  be  exerted 
only  in  pulling  up  the  handle,  and  not  in  pushing  it  down.  In  this 
way,  should  the  handle  violently  pull  itself  away,  it  can  do  no  harm 
as  it  will  simply  tend  to  straighten  out  the  fingers  that  are  engaged 
in  the  upward  pull. 

Smoke.  The  causes  of  smoke  and  odor  are  too  much  oil  or  too 
much  gasoline.  Where  a  crank-case  splash  is  used  for  oiling,  the 
best  way  to  prevent  an  excess  of  oil  getting  into  the  cylinder  is  by 
having  one  or  more  extra  rings  on  the  piston  below  the  lower  ring, 
this  extra  ring  scraping  off  the  surplus  oil.  The  color  of  smoke  due 
to  oil  is  blue.  Corrosion  will  also  cause  smoke,  and  should  be  reme- 
died as  indicated  under  the  heading  "Corrosion,"  by  cleaning  with 
kerosene. 

Smoke  due  to  too  much  gasoline  in  the  mixture,  is  black  and  of 
strong  odor. 

Skidding.  Skidding  or  sliding  of  motor-cars  on  wet,  oily  streets 
is  sometimes  very  annoying  to  a  novice  or  beginner  in  the  new  field 
of  motoring.  And  while  ,  the  results  are  sometimes  very  serious 
where  the  streets  are  crowded  and  traffic  is  heavy,  it  bothers  the  ex- 
perienced driver  but  little,  since  he  has  studied  his  car  as  a  sailor 
learns  his  ship  at  sea,  and  the  moment  it  occurs  he  knows  the  best 
way  to  favor  his  car  under  this  unpleasant  situation. 

Skidding,  as  we  all  know,  is  due  chiefly  to  poor  traction.  If 
we  had  dry  streets  all  months  in  the  year,  this  unpleasant  experience 
would  hardly  befall  us;  but  until  the  wheel  is  brought  into  use  that 
has  the  same  resilience  as  rubber  and  has  the  same  good  traction 
in  either  dry  or  wet  weather,  it  will  be  up  to  the  driver  as  to  the  best 
way  to  avoid  the  skidding  of  his  car  in  bad  weather. 

As  we  drive  down  an  asphalt  boulevard  on  a  wet  day  and  see  a 
car  up  against  the  curbing,  with  a  broken  wheel,  the  first  thing  that 
occurs  to  us  to  say  is:  "Well,  that  fellow  had  to  stop  a  little  sooner 
than  he  expected."  The  chances  are  that  the  driver  of  the  car  was 
running  faster  than  one  should  on  a  wet  day ;  and  at  the  moment  when 
he  decided  that  he  had  better  bring  his  car  to  a  stop,  he  applied  the 


AUTOMOBILES  129 


emergency  brake,  locking  the  rear  wheels,  whereupon  the  weight  of 
the  car  carried  him  from  the  graded  part  of  the  street  into  the  curb. 

Two  years  ago,  such  accidents  were  of  more  frequent  occurrence 
than  they  are  to-day.  This  is  chiefly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  up-to- 
date  motor-car  is  being  equipped  with  what  we  term  an  equalizing 
wire  or  bar  whereby  the  two  rear  brakes  will  get  the  same  tension, 
and  a  car  will  slide  straight  if  the  street  or  road  is  level.  In  the  case 
of  the  old  brake,  where  it  was  necessary  to  jack  up  the  rear  wheels  of 
the  car,  and  adjust  brakes  to  what  was  deemed  about  right,  nine 
out  of  ten  times  one  brake  was  tighter  than  the  other.  Such  a  con- 
dition of  the  brakes  will  skid  a  car  very  quickly,  for  the  car  will  always 
skid  to  the  side  on  which  the  brake  is  tightest,  and  will  almost  always 
turn  completely  around. 

The  conservative  driver  on  a  wet,  muddy  day  is  constantly 
figuring,  so  to  say,  one  minute  "ahead  of  the  game" — which  is  a 
long  time  in  motoring.  He  is  thinking  what  the  driver  of  the  car 
ahead  is  going  to  do,  and  whether  he  is  going  to  cut  him  off  at  the 
corner.  Or  it  may  be  that  he  sees  a  rig  approaching  on  a  cross- 
street.  Will  it  be  past  by  the  time  he  reaches  the  corner?  If  not, 
he  will  check  the  speed  of  his  car  so  that  the  rig  will  have  gone  by, 
leaving  the  roadway  clear.  A  good  policy  on  a  wet  day  is  to  keep 
one's  car  as  near  the  center  of  the  street  as  possible,  still  favoring 
with  the  right  of  way,  as  much  as  possible,  the  driver  coming  in  the 
opposite  direction;  and  to  avoid  as  far  as  possible  any  use  of  the 
brakes. 

It  is  bad  policy  to  use  the  brakes  on  a  wet  clay  hill,  for  this  is 
the  quickest  way  possible  to  put  a  car  in  the  ditch.  Throttle  the 
motor  down  low;  if  necessary,  put  in  the  low  gear,  and  let  the  weight 
of  the  car  drag  on  the  motor.  On  the  road,  should  the  car  start 
skidding  the  rear  wheels  into  the  ditch,  just  drop  back  a  speed  lower 
on  the  shifting  lever,  keep  the  motor  running  about  the  same  number 
of  revolutions,  and  cramp  the  front  wheels  quickly  in  the  opposite 
direction.  The  car  may  slew  to  the  other  side;'  if  so,  cramp  the 
front  wheels  again  in  the  same  manner.  This  may  take  a  little 
practice  on  the  part  of  a  beginner,  but  will  keep  the  car  in  the  road. 
Should  the  front  wheels  act  as  if  beyond  control,  on  account  of  skid- 
ding, just  draw  the  clutch,  or,  in  other  words,  disengage  the  engine 
so  that  there  will  be  no  power  transmitted  to  the  rear  axle.  Keep 


130  AUTOMOBILES 


out  the  clutch  until  control  of  the  front  wheels  is  regained — which 
will  be  before  long.  Never  be  afraid  of  the  car,  and  learn  to  favor 
the  engine  under  all  conditions. 

Skidding,  on  the  other  hand,  has  done  a  great  deal  for  road 
racing  during  the  past  few  years,  in  negotiating  bad  turns  in  getting 
a  high  speed  average.  Bad  turns  on  a  course  are  easily  made  by 
the  practiced  professional  road-driver  at  a  high  rate  of  speed,  through 
the  knack  of  skidding.  M.  Laucia,  for  example — one  of  the  greatest 
drivers  in  the  world — will  run  onto  a  right-angled  corner  at  the  rate 
of  65  to  75  miles  per  hour;  and  at  a  certain  spot  which  he  has  marked 
in  his  mind  (as  he  does  every  bad  point  in  a  course),  he  will  ground 
his  magnets  by  means  of  a  ground  wire  and  button  connected  to  his 
steering  wheel  (this  taking  place  about  100  yards  from  the  turn); 
will  then  draw  the  cliltch;  and,  about  25  feet  from  the  corner,  will 
apply  his  positive  brake  (which  locks  his  rear  wheels)  and  turn  his 
front  wheels  to  a  slight  angle  in  the  direction  he  wishes  to  go — all  in 
a  second.  You  will  see  an  awful  cloud  of  dust  arising;  the  weight 
of  his  huge  piece  of  racing  machinery  has  skidded;  his  rear  wheels 
have  swung  around  just  a  quarter;  he  then  drops  back  to  a  lower 
gear  on  his  speed  sector,  lets  in  his  clutch,  and  is  off  like  a  shot  from 
a  cannon.  In  the  1907  Vanderbilt  race,  Laucia  had  his  rear  brakes 
so  arranged  that  he  could  lock  either  wheel,  or  both.  This  helped 
him  wonderfully  in  making  bad  turns,  as  he  used  his  steering  wheel 
only  to  steady  his  car,  while  his  clutch  and  new  brake  arrangement 
(his  original)  skidded  his  car  at  the  corners. 

Going  down  Steep  Hills.  In  going  down  a  long,  steep  hill,  the 
wear  on  the  brakes  would  be  very  great  if  they  were  used  entirely  to 
hold  the  car  down  to  a  safe  speed.  In  going  down  hill,  one  can 
usually  depend  on  the  braking  effect  of  running  the  engine  without 
power,  thus  having  the  gear  drive  the  engine  and  opposing  a  load  to 
the  downward  pull  of  gravity.  By  throwing  the  engine  into  gear,  you 
get  a  bigger  brake  effect.  The  only  danger  is  the  possibility  of  get- 
ting the  engine  beyond  its  proper  speed.  A  good  many  people  do 
not  believe  in  pulling  the  clutch  when  operating  the  brake.  If  the 
brake  does  not  disengage  the  clutch,  it  would  put  a  strain  on  the 
engine  if  the  brake  were  applied  while  the  engine  was  in  gear.  Some 
makers  are  now  arranging  details  so  that  the  regular  brake  operates 
the  clutch,  and  the  second  or  emergency  brake  does  not. 


AUTOMOBILES  131 


If  the  hill  is  not  long  or  steep  enough  to  demand  the  use  of  the 
engine  compression  as  a  brake,  one  can  use  the  regular  and  emer- 
gency brakes  alternately,  thus  removing  the  strain  and  giving  each 
an  opportunity  to  cool  off. 

When  using  the  engine  compression  as  a  brake,  one  should  not 
run  far  without  shutting  off  the  gasoline.  It  is  of  course  necessary  to 
throw  the  current  and  gasoline  on  before  the  end  of  the  hill  is  reached, 
so  as  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  getting  out  and  cranking  to  start. 

On  the  Road.  After  making  a  run  of  a  certain  number  of  miles 
the  car  should  be  subjected  to  the  following  inspection: 

Examine  the  radiator  to  see  that  it  is  not  unduly  hot,  and  that  it  con- 
tains sufficient  supply  of  water;  examine  oil-pump  box  to  see  that  it  is  well 
supplied  with  oil;  inspect  gasoline  tank  to  see  that  you  have  sufficient  gasoline 
to  reach  your  destination;  note  whether  oil  is  leaking  from  your  engine  casing, 
gear  casing,  or  rear-axle  housing;  see  that  no  gasoline  is  leaking  from  your 
machine.  If  a  gasoline  leak  occurs,  have  it  fixed  promptly;  do  not  permit 
a  leak  from  this  source  an  instant  longer  than  may  be  necessary,  as  it  may 
result  in  a  fire,  which  in  turn  may  cause  the  destruction  of  your  car  and  en- 
danger the  lives  of  its  occupants.  Examine  rear-axle  bearings,  and  see  that 
they  are  not  becoming  heated.  The  rear-axle  housing  will  be  slightly  warm, 
especially  if  you  have  been  running  on  high  gear.  This  will  do  no  harm,  as  it 
is  simply  due  to  the  "churning"  of  the  oil.  Feel  front  hubs  to  see  that  they 
are  not  heating.  Examine  tires  carefully,  and  note  their  condition. 

The  chances  are  that  nothing  whatever  will  be  found  wrong  with 
a  machine,  if  thoroughly  tested  before  starting. 

Cleaning  and  Washing.  It  is  very  essential  to  clean  the  motor 
regularly,  and  to  keep  all  the  bright  parts  well  polished.  Touring 
cars  cover  so  much  more  ground  than  horse-drawn  vehicles  that  they 
are  apt  to  accumulate  a  great  deal  more  mud  and  dirt,  and  the  entire 
car  therefore  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  washed  frequently. 
It  is  important  to  use  a  slow  stream  from  the  stable  hose,  so  that  the 
mud  will  be  soaked  off  and  the  finish  uninjured,  and  no  water  spat- 
tered in  through  the  bonnet.  The  body  should  always  be  dried 
with  chamois  skin;  and  if,  after  washing,  it  can  be  run  outdoors  in 
the  sunshine,  the  finish  will  tend  to  harden  and  brighten. 

CARE  OF  TIRES 

Probably  the  chief  cause  of  the  wearing-out  of  tires  is  that  they 
are  not  kept  sufficiently  inflated.  It  is  not  sufficient  that  the  tire 
shows  no  depression  whatever  when  standing  on  a  hard  surface  under 


1S2  AUTOMOBILES 


full  load,  but  the  tire  should  be  inflated  to  the  full  standard  pressure 
corresponding  to  its  diameter.  The  tire  tube,  properly  inflated,  is 
somewhat  longer  in  its  vertical  than  in  its  horizontal  diameter,  as 
shown  in  A,  Fig.  128.  A  tire  insufficiently  inflated  as  shown  in  B, 


Fig.  128.    Tire  Properly  Inflated  (A)  and  Improperly  Inflated  (B). 

Fig.  128,  is  subjected  to  the  inner  pressure  of  the  rim.  The  following 
is  a  list  of  pressures  to  which  tires  of  various  diameters  should  be 
inflated : 

TIRE  INFLATION 

DIAMETER  OF  TIRE  PRESSURE 

2£  inches 45  pounds 

3  " 50 

3*      "    GO 

4  " ,-,  .: 70 

4i      " 80 

5  " 90 

• 

Every  automobile  owner  should  have  a  tire  pressure-gauge;  and 
this  should  be  attached  to  the -valve,  not  to  the  pump.  The  pointer 
on  the  gauge  oscillates  with  each  stroke  of  the  pump;  the  pressure 
in  the  tire,  however,  is  indicated  by  the  pointer  when  it  is  at  rest.  In 
using  a  pump,  take  long  strokes,  for  in  pumping  short  strokes  much 
of  the  pressure  accumulated  in  the  pump  is  not  transferred  to  the  tire. 
If  a  car  is  in  daily  use,  it  can  be  left  standing  on  the  tires;  but  they 
should  be  left  inflated.  If  the  car  is  to  remain  for  some  weeks  with- 
out being  used,  it  should  be  jacked  up  and  the  tires  deflated  to  remove 
tension.  They  should  be  kept 'free  from  dampness,  for  that  is  very 
injurious.  Corners  must  be  turned  at  slow  speed.  Do  not  drive 
in  street-car  tracks,  as  this  rapidly  wears  out  tires.  Apply  brakes 


AUTOMOBILES 


133 


gradually,  as  their  sudden  application  locks  the  wheels  and  causes 
the  tires  to  slide.  Do  not  let  oil  come  in  contact  with  tires,  because 
it  disintegrates  rubber  and  destroys  its  elasticity.  Should  any  oil  get 
on  the  tires,  re- 
move it  at  once 
with  gasoline.  Ex- 
amine t  h  e  rims 
occasionally ;  and 
if  they  are  becom- 
ing rusty,  rub  them 
down  with  emery 
cloth  and  apply 
white  lead  and 
varnish.  If  an 
outer  case  is  badly 
cut,  it  should  be 
bound  temporarily 
with  tire  tape  or  a 
piece  of  leather. 

Each  size  tire  is  designed  to  carry  a  certain  weight,  as  shown  in 
the  following  table: 

WEIGHTS  CARRIED  BY  TIRES  OF  DIFFERENT  SIZES 


Fig.  129.    Use  of  Large  Tool  in  Removing  Tire. 


SIZE  OF  TIRE 
2^-inch  tires,  all  diameters, 

3  -inch  tires,  ail  diameters, 
3^  by  28-inch  tires, 

30-inch  " 
32-inch  " 
34-inch  " 
36-inch  " 

4  by  30-inch    " 

32-inch  " 
34-inch  " 
36-inch  " 
4£  by  32-inch  " 
34-inch  " 
36-inch  " 


WEIGHT  CARRIED 
225  pounds  per  wheel 
350 
400 
450 
555 
600 

600  "  "  " 
550 
650 
700 
750 
700 
800 
900 


To  determine  the  weight  resting  on  each  wheel,  the  front  end  of  the 
car  should  be  run  onto  scales  to  determine  the  front-axle  weight. 
One-half  of  this  will  represent  the  weight  per  front  wheel.  The  same 
process  gives  the  weight  per  rear  wheel. 


134 


AUTOMOBILES 


To  Remove  Tire  from  Rim.  The  following  instructions  are  to 
a  considerable  extent  those  given  by  the  Gormully  &  Jeffery  (G.  &  J.) 
Tire  Company,  but  with  slight  modifications  apply  to  any  make : 


Fig.  131. 


Fig.  130. 

Use  of  Small  Tool  in  Removing  Tire  from  Rim. 


Fig.  132.    Removing  a  Tire. 


Fig.  133.-  Partially  Removing  Inner  Tube. 


With  large  tire  tool,  as  shown  in  Fig.  129,  push  the  end  of  the 
tire  free  from  the  rim.  Pry  up  the  edge  of  the  tire  case  with  small, 
straight  tool  (see  Fig.  130).  Push  tool  straight  in  underneath  the  tire 
(see  Fig.  131).  Leaving  the  small  tool  underneath  the  edge  of  the 


AUTOMOBILES 


135 


case,  pull  towards  yourself  (see  Fig.  132).  When  a  foot  or  more  of 
the  edge  of  the  case  is  free  from  the  rim,  pry  it  over  the  edge  of  the 
rim;  then,  after  about  one-third  of  the  case  is  released,  the  entire 
tire  can  be  pushed  off  with  the  hands. 

Finding  a  Puncture.  If  a  puncture  is  located  before  removing 
the  tube,  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  remove  the  tube  from  the  case. 
The  tube  can  be  drawn  down  as  indicated  in  Fig.  133.  If  puncture 
has  not  been  located,  remove  tube  from  the  case,  inflate  it,  and  pass 
it  by  your  face,  when  you  will 
likely  feel  or  hear  the  escaping 
air  and  thus  be  able  to  locate  the 
point  of  puncture. 

To  Repair  a  Puncture.  Sand- 
paper the  surface  of  the  tube  at 
point  to  be  repaired.  Sandpaper 
also  the  patch  piece.  Apply  tire 
cement  to  both  tube  and  patch, 
and  allow  each  to  dry  separately. 
When  dry,  apply  a  second  coat  of 
tire  cement  to  both  tube  and 
patch.  When  the  second  coats 
of  cement  are  about  dry,  press  the 
patch  down  firmly.  The  patch 
will  hold  better  if  given  time  to 

get  almost  dry  before  pressing  it  down.  If  you  attempt  to  hur^y 
the  repair,  there  is  danger  of  the  patch  coming  loose.  Before  put- 
ting the  tube  into  the  case,  investigate  the- case,  and  see  that  no 
needle,  tack,  or  nail  is  left  remaining  in  it. 

Returning  Tire  to  the  Rim.  Slightly  inflate  inner  tube,  and  push 
it  back  into  the  case  as  shown  in  Fig.  133.  Then  take  the  case  with 
inner  tube  in  it,  and  push  valve-stem  through  valve-hole  in  rim,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  134.  Fig.  135  shows  how  the  inner  edge  of  the  case 
is  sprung  back  into  place  with  the  large  tire  tool.  Fig.  136  shows 
how  the  second  or  outer  edge  of  the  case  is  pushed  into  place.  Screw 
down  the  valve-nut  so  as  to  hold  down  the  tire  at  this  point.  Place 
a  small,  flat  tool  at  each  side  of  the  valve  underneath  the  edge,  to 
prevent  the  edge  from  slipping  out;  and  with  the  large  tire  tool,  pull 
towards  you. 


Fig.  134.    Returning  Tire  to  Rim. 


136 


AUTOMOBILES 


Before  inflating,  look  around  the  tire  on  each  side  to  see  that 
the  edges  are  properly  seated. 

CARE  AND  OPERATION  OF  ELECTRIC  VEHICLES 

The  Volt-Ammeter.    The  motive  power  of  the  electric  car  is 

the  storage  battery.  The 
amount  of  power  avail- 
able is  registered  by 
the  volt-ammeter,  Fig. 
137.  This  instrument,  as 
commonly  used  on  elec- 
tric cars,  consists  of  a  volt- 
meter and  an  ammeter 
mounted  on  a  single  base 
and  enclosed  in  a  case, 
with  their  graduated 
scales  adjoining  each 
other.  The  purpose  of 
the  volt-ammeter  is  to 
keep  the  driver  posted  as 
to  how  much  electric 
power  he  has  available. 

Before  starting  out 
with  an  electric  vehicle, 
the  driver  should  know 
how  to  read  the  meter 
correctly,  and  he  should 
keep  in  mind  the  amount 
of  electric  power  at  his 
command. 

When  the  battery  is 
fully  charged,  and  after 
the  charging  current  has 
been  cut  off,  this  meter 
should  show  2.2  volts  per 
cell.  Thus  a  24-cell  bat- 
tery should  show  about 

Fig.  136.  * 

Final  Adjustments  in  Returning  Tire  to  Rim.          53  volts ;  a  30-cell  battery, 


Fig.  135. 


AUTOMOBILES 


137 


66  volts.  Batteries  should  not  be  discharged  below  1 . 75  volts  per  cell. 
Thus,  when  a  meter  in  a  vehicle  containing  24  cells  of  battery  shows 
about  42  volts  when  running  at  full  speed  on  a  hard,  level  road,  the 
battery  is  discharged.  If  the  vehicle  is  driven  after  this  point  is 
reached,  it  is  at  the  risk  of  damaging  the  battery. 

The  ammeter  shows  the  amount  of  current  being  used  by  the 
vehicle  at  any  time  when  it  is  running.  On  hard,  level  roads  this 
will  range  from  18  to  24  amperes  when  running  at  second  speed.  The 
more  difficult  the  road,  the  more  current  it  will  take  to  run  the  vehicle. 


Fig.  137.    Volt- Ammeter  Face  as 
Usually  Graduated. 


Fig.  138.    Volt- Ammeter  Face  Graduated  to 
Show  Voltage  per  Cell. 


If  the  driver  watches  his  volt-ammeter,  there  is  no  reason  for 
his  ever  being  stalled  without  any  means  for  recharging  his  batteries. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  gauge  of  the  condition  of  the 
batteries  is  the  voltage  per  cell.  This  is  obtained  by  dividing  the 
voltmeter  reading  by  the  number  of  cells,  the  voltage  reading  being 
taken  when  the  car  is  doing  normal  work.  The  voltage  reading 
when  no  work  is  being  done  is  no  gauge. 

Some  makes  of  volt-ammeters  have  the  calibrations  numbered 
so  as  to  indicate  the  total  voltage  not  only  of  the  battery,  but  also  of 
the  cell.  This  type  of  instrument  is  shown  in  Fig.  138.  The  smaller 
figures  on  the  left  side  of  the  meter  indicate  total  voltage  of  the  bat- 
tery. Thus,  if  we  have  12  cells  of  battery,  when  the  pointer  indicates 
24  volts,  the  reading  is  2  volts  per  cell.  With  this  type  of  instru- 


138  AUTOMOBILES 


ment,  one  can  observe  closer  voltage  reading  than  when  the  total 
voltage  only  is  indicated.  The  point  B,  indicated  by  the  small  arrow, 
is  at  a  point  indicateng  2 . 65  volts  per  cell,  which  indicates  the  highest 
point  at  which  a  12-cell  battery  should  be  charged,  when  ammeter 
needle  is  at  A  on  the  ampere  side  of  the  instrument.  The  point  D 
shows  the  point  at  which  the  battery  will  be  discharged  when  the 
ampere  needle  is  at  C. 

Controller.  In  starting  a  car,  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  see  that 
the  controller  handle  is  at  the  "Off"  position.  This  is  the  first  step, 
and  should  be  noted  before  inserting  the  key  which  closes  the  circuit. 
It  might  happen  that  the  controller  handle  had  been  moved  to  some 
running  notch  by  some  curious  or  mischievous  person.  In  this  event 
the  car  would  start  as  soon  as  the  key  was  inserted,  and  might  cause 
an  accident. 

Pulling  out  the  key  also  affords  a  means  of  stopping  the  car  in 
case  the  controller  handle  should  stick,  although  such  an  occurrence 
is  rare. 

In  starting  the  car,  do  not  advance  the  controller  handle  beyond 
the  first  notch.  As  soon  as  the  vehicle  has  gained  a  little  momentum, 
the  handle  may  be  advanced  another  notch.  The  handle  should  never 
be  allowed  to  remain  between  notches,  as  this  is  likely  to  cause  arcing 
in  the  controller. 

In  stopping  or  reversing,  the  lever  should  be  thrown  quickly 
back  to  the  "off"  position.  To  reverse,  the  reverse  switch  is  thrown 
"On,"  and  the  controller  handle  advanced  to  the  first  notch.  The 
beginner  will  find  it  a  little  difficult  at  first  to  steer  on  the  reverse, 
and  should  have  his  foot  on  the  brake  and  be  ready  to  throw  the  con- 
troller handle  to  the  "Off"  position.  Unless  an  unusual  emergency 
demands  it,  never  reverse  a  vehicle  while  it  is  moving  forward.  And 
under  no  circumstances  change  again  while  it  is  moving  backward. 

Driving  an  Electric  Vehicle.  First  attempts  at  steering  should  not 
be  made  on  a  crowded  street  or  at  full  speed.  Turn  the  corners  at 
slow  speed,  especially  if  the  streets  are  wet  and  slippery.  Do  not 
grip  steering  or  controlling  levers  tightly.  A  firm  but  relaxed  hold 
is  the  correct  one.  The  bell  is  operated  by  a  push-button,  sometimes 
located  on  the  floor  and  operated  by  the  foot,  and  sometimes  in  the 
handle  of  the  steering  lever. 

The  bell  should  be  rung  lightly  when  turning  from  one  street 


AUTOMOBILES 


139 


to  another,  when  approaching  a  crossing,  or  when    obliged  to  stop 
suddenly  in  a  crowded  street. 

In  great  emergencies  a  motor  may  be  reversed  at  first  speed; 
but  this  method  of  stopping  should  not  be  used  until  all  other  means 
fail.     Brakes  should  be  used  as  rarely  as  possible,  and  current  should 
be  cut  off  before  applying 
them.     A  good  driver  will 
always  be  economical  with 
his   power,   and   with  care 
will    be    able   to   get   from 
eight  to  twelve   miles  more 
with  one  charge  of  the  bat- 
tery than  one  who  does  not 
save  at  every  opportunity. 

Such  little  economies 
as  turning  on  the  motor 
light  only  when  necessary, 
coasting  whenever  practic- 
able, and  using  a  second 
speed  instead  of  the  high 
speed,  will  all  help  in  pro- 
longing the  amount  of  run 
to  be  had  from  one  charge. 

Care  of  Motor.  The 
commutator  should  be  kept 
clean,  using  an  oily  felt. 
If  the  felt  will  not  clean, 
sandpaper  may  be  used,  but 
must  always  be  followed  by 
rubbing  with  the  felt. 
Great  care  must  be  exer- 
cised not  to  leave  particles  of  sand  between  the  brush  and  the 
holder,  as  this  will  cause  charring  of  the  commutator.  Brushes 
should  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  and  no  dirt  or  sand  allowed  to  get  be- 
tween the  brush  and  the  holder,  which  prevents  free  movement  of 
the  brush,  causing  sparking  and  blackening.  Tension  on  the  brushes 
must  be  sufficient  to  give  good  contact  with  the  commutator. 
In  most  automobile  motors,  brush-holders  are  stationary,  being 


Fig.  139.    Rheostat  for  Reducing  Line  Voltage  of 
220  or  110  Volts  to  Proper  Voltage  for 

Charging  Batteries. 
The  Waverley  Company,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 


140 


AUTOMOBILES 


placed    at  the  neutral   points;    and   their  position  should    not   be 
changed. 

Charging  Stations.  Storage "  batteries  for  electric  automobiles 
must  be  charged  with  a  direct  current  at  a  rate  varying  from  6  to  40 
amperes.  The  voltage  usually  required  varies  from  65  to  110  volts, 
according  to  the  number  of  cells  in  the  battery.  A  town  or  locality 
supplying  a  110-volt  direct  current  affords  the  best  facilities  for  charg- 


Fig.  140.    A  y/z -Horse-Power  Motor-Generator  Set  for  Reducing  500- Volt  Line  Current  to 

Proper  Voltage  for  Charging  Batteries. 
The  Waverley  Company,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

ing  batteries.  Under  such  conditions  the  only  equipment  necessary 
for  charging  is  a  rheostat  introducing  resistance  to  cut  down  the 
voltage  from  110  volts  to  the  required  point  (see  Fig.  139).  When 
220-volt  direct  current  is  used,  voltage  may  be  reduced  in  this  same 
manner;  but  with  500-volt  or  with  alternating  current,  a  motor- 
generator  set  is  required  for  charging  (see  Figs.  140  and  141). 

Where  access  can  be  had  to  a  factory  where  it  is  practicable  to 
drive  from  a  shaft  a  small  2-horse-power  generator,  this  arrange- 
ment will  be  found  more  economical  than  any  other.  The  gasoline 


AUTOMOBILES 


141 


engine  has  also  been  used  for  driving  a  dynamo  to  charge  storage 
batteries  (see  Fig.  142). 

The  usual  cost  of  keeping  up  batteries  of  an  electric  vehicle, 
when  this  care  is  assigned  to  a  garage,  is  about  $25.00  a  month  for 
a  24-cell  car,  this  charge  including  cost  of  charging  current,  care  of 
batteries,  oiling,  and  general  up-keep.  Where  this  work  is  done  by 


Fig.  141.    A  3-Horse-Power  Motor-Generator    Set  for  Transforming  Alternating  Line 

Current  to  Direct  Current  of  Proper  Voltage  for  Charging  Batteries. 

The  Waverley  Company,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

the  owner,  cost  of  current  alone  should  not  exceed  ten  dollars  per 
month;  hence  it  is  often  more  economical  as  well  as  more  convenient 
for  the  owner  to  provide  his  own  charging  station. 

Where  a  person  desires  to  maintain  an  electric  vehicle  at  a  point 
remote  from  electric  current,  and  where  it  is  not  convenient  to  obtain 
power  for  driving  the  charging  generator  from  a  factory  line-shaft, 
the  gasoline-engine-driven  generator  set  for  charging  the  storage 
battery  is  available. 


AUTOMOBILES  143 


Storage  Batteries  for  Electric  Vehicles.  Storage  batteries  us- 
ually suffer  more  from  neglect  than  from  any  other  cause,  the 
reason  being  that  they  do  not  give  any  decidedly  pronounced  evi- 
dence of  such  neglect  until  it  has  been  a  matter  of  long  standing. 

The  storage  battery,  strictly  speaking,  is  not  a  device  for  storing 
electricity,  but  is  a  device  in  which  the  energy  of  an  electric  current 
provided  from  some  outside  source  is  caused  to  produce  electrolytic 
decomposition  to  such  an  extent  as  to  produce  independently  an 
electric  current  after  the  removal  of  the  electrolyzing  current.  The 
charging  current  produces  an  electrolytic  decomposition  of  the  liquid 
between  the  plates.  This  liquid  is  usually  a  mixture  of  chemically 
pure  sulphuric  acid  with  distilled  water,  mixed  until  the  specific  gravity, 
when  the  mixture  is  cold,  is  1.28.  The  mixture  should  always  be 
made  by  adding  the  acid  to  the  water,  and  allowing  the  mixture  to 
cool  thoroughly.  Never  prepare  the  mixture  by  adding  water  to  acid. 
Water  must  be  distilled  and  free  from  iron  or  other  metallic  ingre- 
dients. 

On  the  cessation  of  the  charging  current,  and  the  connection  of 
the  charged  plates  by  a  conductor  outside  the  liquid,  a  current  is  pro- 
duced which  flows  through  the  liquid  from  the  plates  about  which 
the  positive  radicals  are  accumulated  to  the  plates  about  which  the 
negative  radicals  are  accumulated,  or  in  the  opposite  direction  to 
that  taken  by  the  charging  current. 

When  this  reversal  or  discharging  action  is  thoroughly  effected, 
the  cells  become  inactive,  and  will  furnish  no  further  current  until 
again  charged  by  the  passage  of  a  current  from  some  external  source. 

Charging  Storage  Batteries.  Before  beginning  to  charge  a 
battery,  remove  the  starting  plug  from  the  car,  and  see  that  the  con- 
troller handle  is  in  the  "Off"  position.  After  making  sure  that  the 
knife-switch  between  rheostat  and  outside  current  is  open,  and  the 
rheostat  handle  at  its  extreme  left,  insert  the  charging  plug  into 
the  socket  for  its  reception  (this  socket  is  usually  under  one 
side  of  the  vehicle  body).  Then  close  the  knife-switch;  and  by 
turning  the  rheostat  handle  to  the  right,  adjust  the  current  to  the 
ampere  rate  indicated  by  the  battery  manufacturer.  This  rate — to 
be  maintained  usually  for  about  eight  hours — varies  from  9  amperes 
in  a  5-plate  cell  having  plates  4|  by  8|  inches,  up  to  26  amperes  in  a 
13-plate  cell  with  plates  of  same  dimensions. 


144 


AUTOMOBILES 


The  bell  must  not  be  rung,  nor  the  lamps  turned  on,  while  the 

battery  is  charging,  as  the  increased  voltage  may  cause  them  to  burn 

out. 

The  normal  charging  current  as  required  by  the  battery  should 

be  maintained  until  the  batterv  gases  freely,  and  the  voltage  reads 

2.5  to  2.6  volts  per  cell  with 
charging  circuit  closed.  When 
the  voltage  has  reached  2.5  volts 
per  cell  with  charging  circuit 
closed,  the  charging  current  may 
be  adjusted  to  one-half  the  nor- 
mal charging  rate,  until  the  volt- 
age rises  to  2.6  volts  per  cell 
with  charging  circuit  closed.  It 
is  well  to  charge  occasionally  at 
only  one-half  the  normal  charging 
rate,  especially  if  the  battery  has 
been  over-discharged. 

Always  remove  the  vent- 
plugs  in  the  cells  when  charging 
the  battery.  Provide  free  circu- 
lation of  air  around  the  battery. 
A  battery  gases  as  one  ap- 
proaches the  end  of  the  charge. 
The  action  is  that  of  the  elec- 
trolyte throwing  off  hydrogen. 

Casing  is  the  symptom 
watched  for  in  connection  with 
the  voltmeter  reading  when  charg- 
ing current  is  momentarily  shut 

off,   to  indicate   that  the  batteries  are  recharged.      Care  should  be 

exercised,  when  gasing  occurs,  that  no  flame  or  spark  is  near  the 

batteries,  as  hydrogen  gas  is  inflammable. 

Be  sure  the  electrolytic  fluid  is  always  maintained  above  the 

tops  of  the  plates.     Examine  the  cells  frequently  with  this  point  in 

mind. 

It  is  not  economical  to  charge  at  a  higher  rate  than  specified  as 

normal  by  the  battery  maker.     A  long-continued  charge  at  a  low 


Fig.  143.    Single  Storage-Battery  Cell. 

Universal  Electric  Storage  Battery  Com 

pany,  Chicago,  111. 


AUTOMOBILES 


145 


rate,  J  to  j  normal,  is  beneficial,  and  will  increase  the  life  of  a 
battery. 

Never  allow  the  battery  to  stand  discharged.  Always  charge 
immediately  after  using. 

If  it  is  necessary  to  remove  the  elements  from  the  jars,  do  not 
let  them  stand  where  dust  or  dirt  can  get  on  them.  Place  them  in  a 
receptacle  containing  distilled  water  or  dilute  acid. 


Fig.  144.    Assembled  Battery  of  24  Cells.  Bolt-Connected,  Ready  to  Put  into  Car. 
Universal  Electric  Storage  Battery  Company,  Chicago,  111. 

A  battery  that  is  not  being  used  should  be  given  a  freshening 
every  two  weeks. 

A  battery  that  has  stood  unused  for  some  time  will  lose  a  part 
of  its  charge,  due  to  local  losses  in  the  cells.  Under  these  circum- 
stances the  battery  should  be  fully  discharged  and  then  recharged. 

The  best  method  of  discharging  when  not  running  the  vehicle, 
is  to  lay  a  piece  of  metal  across  the  open  rheostat  switch,  leaving  the 
switch  stand  out  in  a  horizontal  position,  thus  discharging  through 
the  rheostat.  The  rate  of  discharge  can  then  be  adjusted  as  in 
charging. 

Fig.  143  shows  a  single  storage  battery  cell;  and  Fig.  144  a 
24-cell  battery  set  assembled  and  ready  to  put  in  car. 


146  AUTOMOBILES 


Care  of  Storage  Batteries.  The  following  is  a  list  of  cautions 
to  be  observed  in  connection  with  the  care  of  storage  batteries: 

Keep  the  electrolyte  at  the  proper  height  above  the   top  of  the  plates. 

A  battery  should  not  be  excessively  overcharged. 

A  battery  should  never  stand  completely  discharged. 

A  battery  should  be  kept  free  from  deposits  in  the  bottom  of  the  jars. 

The  battery  temperature  should  never  exceed  100  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Entirely  discharge  a  battery,  and  then  recharge  it  regularly  once  a 
month. 

All  battery  connections  must  be  kept  clean  and  bright. 

Any  low  cells  in  the  battery  must  be  located  and  repaired  at  once. 

Battery  compartments  should  be  kept  dry. 

The  electrolyte  in  the  cells  should  stand  from  J  to  J>  inch  above 
the  top  of  the  plates.  All  loss  by  evaporation  should  be  replaced 
with  distilled  water  only.  Once  a  month  the  gravity  of  the  acid  in 
each  cell  should  be  tested,  and  if  found  to  be  low,  electrolyte  instead 
of  water  should  be  used  to  replace  the  loss.  No  information  con- 
cerning the  gravity  of  the  acid  can  be  obtained  unless  the  battery 
is  fully  charged. 

A  battery  may  be  overcharged  in  two  ways:  First,  by  charging 
too  frequently;  second,  by  charging  too  long  at  a  high  rate.  If  a 
battery  that  will  run  a  vehicle  forty  miles  is  charged  after  every 
short  trip  of  five  or  ten  miles,  it  is  charged  four  or  five  times  as  often 
as  it  should  be.  A  battery  should  not  be  charged  until  over  50  per 
cent  of  its  capacity  has  been  exhausted.  If  excessively  overcharged, 
a  rapid  deterioration  of  the  plates  will  result. 

However,  keep  in  mind  the  fact  that  a  legitimate  overcharge,  so 
called,  may  be  given  from  one  to  three  hours  at  a  low  rate  about 
once  a  month,  and  will  prove  beneficial  to  the  batteries. 

An  electric  vehicle  should  never  stand  with  the  battery  com- 
pletely discharged.  If  permitted  to  do  so,  the  plates  of  the  battery 
are  likely  to  sulphate,  which  will  tend  to  destroy  their  efficiency.  A 
low  gravity  of  the  acid,  and  whitish  appearance  of  the  plates,  will 
indicate  this  condition.  The  battery  may  be  put  in  good  condition 
again  by  a  long,  low  charge.  A  badly  sulphated  cell  may  require  a 
charge  of  as  much  as  GO  hours  at  low  ampere  rate,  before  being  brought 
to  proper  condition.  Do  not  be  alarmed,  however,  if  the  voltage 
runs  up  higher  than  usual  during  this  process.  As  soon  as  the  sul- 
phate is  broken  down,  the  battery  will  assume  its  normal  condition 
as  to  voltage  and  the  gravity  of  the  acid. 


AUTOMOBILES  147 


The  sediment  which  collects  in  the  bottom  of  the  jars  as  the 
battery  is  used,  should  not  be  allowed  to  reach  the  plates.  If  some 
of  the  cells  show  a  low  capacity  or  heat  quickly  in  charging,  cut  out 
the  low  cells,  remove  their  elements,  and  examine  the  jar  to  see  if 
there  is  much  sediment  in  the  bottom.  If  so,  the  battery  needs 
washing,  and  this  should  be  done  as  soon  as  possible.  Many  bat- 
teries are  completely  ruined  by  continued  use  after  they  need  washing. 

The  temperature  of  a  battery  must  not  be  allowed  to  exceed 
100  degrees  Fahrenheit.  If  no  thermometer  is  available,  the  hand 
forms  a  fairly  accurate  test.  Never  let  the  battery  feel  very  warm  to 
your  hand.  If  the  battery  warms  up  quickly,  examine  for  short 
circuit,  especially  if  the  voltage  drops  quickly  in  running  and  it  is 
difficult  to  obtain  full  mileage. 

It  is  a  very  good  plan  to  discharge  the  battery  entirely  at  least 
once  a  month.  This  can  easily  be  done  by  continuing  the  discharge 
through  a  rheostat  after  coming  in  from  a  run.  By  going  over  the 
cells  with  a  low  reading  voltmeter  at  this  time,  a  fairly  good  idea  as 
to  their  condition  may  be  obtained.  A  considerable  difference  in 
the  voltage  of  the  various  cells  is  an  indication  that  they  need  atten- 
tion. Always  recharge  a  battery  as  soon  as  possible  after  a  complete 
discharge. 

All  dirt  and  acids  should  be  kept  from  the  terminals,  as  well  as 
from  the  outside  of  the  cells,  including  straps  and  the  battery  trays. 

If  any  low.  cells  are  found,  look  for  the  cause.  There  may  be 
sulphated  plates,  a  dry  cell  due  to  a  leaking  jar,  or  cells  may  need 
cleaning. 

The  battery  compartment  must  be  kept  dry.  If  a  bottom  is 
put  in  to  keep  the  acid  from  dripping  on  the  gear,  care  should  be 
taken  to  have  it  arranged  so  that  the  acid  runs  off  immediately.  If 
the  battery  trays  are  allowed  to  stand  in  the  acid,  it  rots  them  and 
the  charge  flows  away  through  the  wet  wood. 

OPERATION  OF  STEAM=DRIVEN  AUTOMOBILES 

In  the  steam  car  there  is  usually  a  high-pressure  steam  boiler  to 
develop  the  power,  delivering  steam  to  an  engine  of  two  or  more 
cylinders.  The  steam  boiler  is  usually  of  the  flash-generator  type 
— namely  a  water-tube  boiler  in  which  the  whole  boiler  consists  of 
one  or  more  long  coiled  tubes  with  thick  walls  and  a  small  bore, 


148  AUTOMOBILES 


through  which  water  is  constantly  forced  by  a  pump.  In  a  generator 
of  this  sort,  water  enters  relatively  cold  at  one  end  of  the  tube,  and  is 
delivered  in  the  form  of  superheated  steam  under  very  high  pressure 
at  the  other  end. 

A  generator  of  this  type  has  but  a  small  reserve  capacity,  because 
of  the  small  amount  of  water  it  can  contain.  It  is  therefore  neces- 
sary to  provide  means  for  securing  an  abundant  supply  of  steam 
when  a  sudden  increase  of  power  is  demanded.  This  is  usually 
accomplished  by  having  the  liquid  fuel  increased  in  unison  with  the 
operation  of  the  circulating  water  pump,  so  that  when  more  water  is 
being  pumped  more  fuel  is  being  fed  at  the  same  time. 

In  the  steam-engine-driven  automobile,  there  is  no  need  for  any 
variable  speed-gear,  and  the  troublesome  electric  ignition  is  done 
away  with.  The  engine  itself  has  a  wide  range  of  power  or  flexi- 
bility, and  this  can  be  controlled  in  the  simplest  manner  by  merely 
admitting  more  or  less  steam  to  the  cylinders.  In  addition  to  its 
flexibility,  the  steam  car  has  the  advantage  of  being  practically  noise- 
less in  running  and  of  being  free  from  vibration,  which  latter  is  a 
feature  of  all  internal-combustion  engines.  Its  mechanism  is  also 
of  the  simplest  type;  hence  it  can  be  built  lighter  throughout,  for  the 
same  power,  than  can  a  gasoline-driven  car.  Its  limitations  are 
such,  however,  that  in  some  respects  it  cannot  compete  with  the  gaso- 
line car.  For  instance,  it  cannot  travel  the  same  distance  as  a  gaso- 
line-driven car  on  the  same  amount  of  fuel,  since  the  gasoline  en- 
gine is  far  more  efficient  than  the  steam  plant  using  gasoline  as  boiler 
fuel. 

More  attention  is  required  to  start  and  maintain  the  steam 
vehicle  while  running,  than  is  demanded  by  the  gasoline  car. 

The  high-pressure  boiler  may  be  easily  damaged  through  want 
of  careful  attention. 

The  main  parts  in  a  steam  car  are:  Engine,  boiler,  and  heater, 
pumps,  transmission  gear,  water  and  gasoline  supply-tanks,  and 
controlling  gear. 

Steam  cars  usually  do  not  have  fly-wheels.  With  two  double- 
acting  cylinders,  four  impulses  are  obtained  for  every  revolution  of 
the  crank-shaft,  thus  securing  much  more  uniform  turning  effort 
than  in  a  gasoline  vehicle. 

One  of  the  most  important  features  of  mechanism,  in  the  steam 


AUTOMOBILES 


149 


car  is  the  force-pumps  worked  by  the  engine  for  the  purpose  of  feed- 
ing the  water  supply  into  the  boiler  under  pressure  to  replace  that 
evaporated. 

In  most  steam  vehicles,  speed  regulation  is  accomplished  alto- 
gether by  the  throttle-valve,  by  simply  altering  the  quantity  of  steam 
passing  to  the  engine. 

The  drive  is  either  by  chain  from  the  engine-shaft  to  a  power- 


MA 


Fig.  145.  Generator.  Burner,  and  Fuel  Connections  of  White  Steam  Car. 
^1-Supply-Pipe  from  Fuel  Tank;  B— Fuel  Strainer  Casting ;  C— Fuel  Strainer  Plug; 
/>— Main  Sub-Burner  Valve;  #— Sub-Burner  Flush  Valve;  F—  Sub- Burner  Adjusting 
Valve;  #— Warming-Up  Valve;  H—  Pipe  to  Main  Burner  Valve ;  7— Pipe  to  Warming-Up 
Valve;  J—  Main  Burner  Valve ;  K— Pipe  to  Flow  Motor;  L— Flow-Motor  Fuel  Valve;  it- 
Pipe  from  Flow-Motor  Fuel  Valve  to  Vaporizer;  2V— Vaporizer ;  0— Vaporizer  Nozzle; 
P—  Sub-Burner  Cap;  0— Burner;  .ff— Burner  Induct! on  Tube;  8—  Induction-Tube  Shutter ; 
T—  Pipe  to  Vaporizer  Gauge ;  U—  Vaporizer  Support  Post ;  F— Sub- Burner  Casing;  W— 
Sub-Burner  Casing  Door;  AC— Flow-Motor  Stuffing— Box;  AD— Pipe  from  Power  Air- 
Pump;  NA— Vaporizer  Discharge  Pipe;  MA— Sub- Burner  Supply  Pipe;  HA— Pipe  Con- 
necting Valve  G  with  Vaporizer  N\  119— Thermostat  Cap;  129— Discharge  to  Engine. 

ful  sprocket  on  the  rear  axle,  or  direct  drive  as  in  the  gasoline-driven 
automobile. 

Care  of  Steam  Cars.  Water  and  gasoline  tanks  must  be  kept 
full.  A  supply  of  air  must  be  pumped  into  the  pressure  reservoir 
for  the  gasoline-burner  feed.  The  torch  or  sub-burner  for  starting 
the  vaporizing  process  must  be  lighted,  and  shortly  afterwards  (in 
3  to  5  minutes)  the  gasoline  supply  may  be  turned  on  in  the  main 
burner. 

In  a  few  minutes  the  steam  pressure  will  have  risen  to  a  working 
point.  Then  the  car  is  ready  to  run.  The  gauge  needs  to  be  watched 


150 


AUTOMOBILES 


i  ii  ii  ii  j 


closely,  as  steam  pressure  rises  very  quickly,  and  too  much  fire  at 
the  burner  will  cause  excessive  steam  pressure  and  open  the  safety 
blow-off  valve. 

To  start,  it  is  only  necessary  to  push  the  throttle-lever  forward 

slightly  at  first;  and  in  order  to 
stop,  to  shut  off  the  steam  sup- 
ply and  apply  the  brake. 

Since,  in  steam  generators, 
scorching  of  boiler  tubes  results 
in  serious  damage,  and  even  danger 
of  explosion,  the  devices  control- 
ling water-supply  to  the  boiler  are 
features  of  construction  requiring 
especial  attention.  In  the  White 

The  White  Company,  Cleveland,  Ohio.  ^  ^  watcr^upply  js  automat- 
ically regulated,  obviating  all  need  for  the  ordinary  water-gauge, 
and  removing  all  danger  except  from  the  grossest  carelessness. 

Injectors  are  but  little  used  for  feeding  automobile  boilers, 
because  they  would  have  to  be  made  so  small  that  they  would  be 
constantly  clogged  with  dirt.  Furthermore,  an  injector  would  fill 


Fig.  146.    Diagram  Showing  Circulation 

through  Generator  of  White 

Steam  Car. 


Fig.  147.    Chassis  of  White  Steamer,  Showing  Power  Plant. 
The  White  Company,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

the  boiler  too  rapidly.  Most  usually  plunger  pumps  are  used, 
driven  from  the  crosshead  of  the  engine.  Consequently,  as  long 
as  the  engine  is  in  motion,  water  is  being  pumped  into  the  boiler. 
When  the  water  level  is  too  high,  the  by-pass  valve  is  opened,  and 
the  water  is  pumped  over  and  back  again  to  the  tank.  Automatic 
control  of  the  by-pass  is  very  desirable. 


AUTOMOBILES 


151 


Pump  troubles  are  usually  due  to  loosened  packings  or  clogged 
check-valves. 

In  inserting  new  packings,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  pack  the 
plunger  too  tight  and  cause  breakage. 

It  is  claimed  as  an  advantage  of  the  flash  type  of  boilers,  that, 


,65 


65 


.  Fig.  147A.    Crank-Shaft,  Crank.  Eccentrics,  ana  Link  Motion  in  White  Steam  Car. 

The  White  Company,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

65— Bolts  Holding  Universal  Joint  to  Crank-Shaft;  73— Valve-Stem  Bearings;  74  — 
Link- Yoke;  75— Crosshead ;  76— Crosshead  Pins ;  77— Connecting  Rod ;  78— Connecting-Rod 
Cap;  79— Valve  Links;  80— Eccentric  Rods;  81— Eccentric  Rod  Cap;  82— Air  and  Condenser 
Pump  Eccentric  Rod:  83— Water  Pump  Eccentric  Rod;  84— Counterbalance  Low  Pressure; 
85— Counterbalance  High  Pressure;  86— Main  Bearing;  87— Main  Thrust  Bearing. 

owing  to  the  rapidity  of  steam  generation,  no  incrustation  is  formed 
inside  the  tubes. 

Fig.  145  shows  the  generator  of  the  White  steam  car;  and  Fig. 
146,  the  circulation  system.  Fig.  147  shows  the  chassis  of  this  car. 
This  car  uses  the  Stephenson  link  valve-motion  actuated  by  a  set 


152 


AUTOMOBILES 


of  four  eccentrics,  instead  of  the  cam-shaft  valve-regulating  system 
used  in  some  other  makes  of  steam  cars.  This  is  shown  in  Fig.  147A. 
Water  Regulation  in  Steam  Cars.  In  the  White  steam  car, 
when  the  engine  is  in  operation,  it  operates  the  feed-water  pumps. 
The  water-regulator  either  by-passes  all  the  water  thrown  by  the 

pumps,  which  is  the  case  when 
the  pressure  is  above  550  Ibs.,  or 
it  allows  all  the  water  to  flow 
toward  the  generator  when  the 
pressure  is  less  than  550  Ibs.  The 
water  supply  is  either  all  on  or 
entirely  shut  off,  the  required 
variation  being  automatically 
brought  about  by  the  action  of 
the  water-regulator  shown  in  Fig. 
147  B. 

This  water-regulator  is  a  sim- 
ple diaphragm  valve  actuated  by 
the  steam  pressure  in  the  gener- 
ator. This  valve  is  situated  in 
the  water-line,  and  acts  either  to 
permit  all  the  water  thrown  by 
the  two  water  pumps  to  be  re- 
turned to  the  tank,  or  to  permit 
none  of  it  to  be  returned,  the 
valve  being  open  or  closed,  de- 
pending  on  the  steam  pressure. 
The  steam  pressure  of  the  steam 
entering  at  the  passage  in  the 
upper  center  of  the  regulator,  presses  down  against  the  four  dia- 
phragms, causing  them  to  press  down  in  turn  on  the  diaphragm 
shifting  pad  located  immediately  under  them,  this  action  com- 
pressing the  spring  shown  in  section.  The  central  spindle  at  the 
same  time  being  impelled  downward  by  the  diaphragm  shifting 
pad,  moves  the  pawl-like  lever  shown  at  the  bottom  of  the  cut,  this 
action  causing  the  valve  at  the  lower  left  hand  of  the  cut  to  lift  down- 
ward from  its  seat.  The  unseating  of  this  valve  permits  water  from 
the  pumps  to  enter  at  the  valve-seat  just  mentioned,  this  water  being 


Fig.  147B.    Water-Regulator  of  White 
Steam  Car. 

A— Main  Casting;  B— Water-Regulator 
Cover;  C—  Water- Regulator  Washer;  D— 
Four  Diaphragms;  E — Plug;  F — Diaphragm 

Lock  Nut  for  Plunger  Adjustment;  ./—Le- 
ver; A'— Valve;  L— Spring  Adjusting  Nut; 
M— Spring  Adjusting  Pad ;  N- —Valve  Seat; 
0— Connection  to  Pump  Discharge;  P—  By- 
Pass;  Q— Connection  to  Oiler  and  Steam 
Gauge;  R— Steam  Pressure  Connection ;  S— 
Spring  Adjusting  Worm. 


AUTOMOBILES 


153 


forced  up  through  the  regulator,  leaving  it  at  the  opening  shown  in 
the  left  center  of  the  cut.  When  the  steam  pressure  goes  below  the 
tension  for  which  the 
spring  in  the  regulator 
is  adjusted  (usually  550 
lbs.),the  diaphragms  will 
return  to  their  normal 
position,  the  water  pres- 
sure closing  the  valve  at 
the  bottom  of  the  cut. 

Fuel  Regulation  in 
Steam  Cars.  Fuel  is  reg- 
ulated in  the  White  steam 
car  by  means  of  a  device 
called  a  flow  motor.  This 
flow  motor  is  a  piece  of 
mechanism  in  which  the 
rate  of  flow  of  water 
through  it  is  made  to  reg? 
ulate  the  rate  of  flow  oft, 
fuel  to  the  vaporizing 
burner. 

Fig.  147  C  is  a  sec- 
tion of  the  WThite  flow 
motor.  Its  action  is  as 
follows :  Water  enters  the 
cylinder  at  123  through 
a  connection  at  the  back 
not  shown  in  the  cut.  It 
flows  past  the  piston 
through  a  groove  195, 
and  out  through  the 
branch  pipe  124  to  the 
steam  generator.  As  the 
steam  pressure  drops  and 
operates  the  water-regulator  described  above  so  as  to  permit  a 
greater  flow  of  water,  the  increasing  flow  of  water  forces  the  piston 
dowrn  the  cylinder,  compressing  spring  198  to  a  ^point  where  the 


Fig.  147C.  Flow  Motor  of  White  Steam  Car. 
CB—  Plug;  K—  Fuel  Pipe  to  Flow  Motor;  L— Flow- 
Motor  Fuel  Valve ;  CA  to  CD— Graduation  Valve  Stem; 
M— Pipe  to  Vaporizer;  AC—  Stuffing-Box;  193— Valve 
Stem;  194- Valve-Stem  Lock  Nut;  192-Piston-Rod ;  125 
— Stuffing-Box;  124— Outlet;  196— Plug  for  Draining:  198 
—Piston  Spring;  191— Piston;  195— Groove;  123— Inlet; 
197— By-Pass  Valve. 


154 


AUTOMOBILES 


. 

*3  --7  o  !i  c  a  +* 


P! 


££§&S*SS 


AUTOMOBILES  155 


valve  197  at  the  bottom  of  the  cut  is  drawn  away  from  its  seat,  thus 
allowing  part  of  the  water  to  escape  through  the  passage  thus 
opened. 

Attached  to  piston  191  is  a  small  piston-rod  passing  upward 
through  a  stuffing-box  125  and  through  another  stuffing-box  AC, 
terminating  in  a  fuel  valve  L  in  the  upper  part  of  the  cut. 

In  the  position  shown  in  the  cut,  there  is  no  water  in  the  flow 
motor,  and  piston  191  is  at  the  top  of  its  stroke.  Valve  L  is  closed, 
and  no  fuel  is  passing  from  K  through  L  and  out  at  M .  When 
the  piston  is  compressed,  however,  the  valve  L  is  proportionally 
opened,  thus  permitting  an  increased  flow  of  fuel  to  the  vaporizing 
burner. 

These  valves,  being  of  very  small  dimensions  and  very  care- 
fully proportioned,  must  be  repaired  or  reground  with  the  great- 
est caution,  so  as  not  to  change  the  proportion  between  water  and 
gasoline. 

General  Water  System  of  a  Steam  Car.  Fig.  147  D  shows  dia- 
grammatically  the  various  devices  in  the  water  system  of  a  steam 
car,  and  how  they  are  connected. 

SELECTING  A  MOTOR=CAR 

From  Whom  to  Seek  Advice.  Probably  the  most  disinterested 
as  well  as  the  most  competent  advice  in  regard  to  a  car,  would 
be  such  as  is  obtained  from  a  mechanical  engineer.  While  it  is 
courteous  to  give  heed  to  the  experience  of  friends  who  own  and 
recommend  some  particular  make  of  machine,  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  their  judgment  is  likely  to  be  influenced  by  their  own 
somewhat  one-sided  experience. 

The  automobile  is  a  wholly  technical  aggregation  of  mechanisms, 
sold  usually  to  a  non-technical  man.  This  condition  is  the  reason  for 
the  common  demand  that  the  vehicle  the  purchaser  wants  shall  pos- 
sess all  the  fads  and  fancies  of  the  year's  fashion,  whether  the  points 
in  fashion  have  any  real  merit  or  not. 

Character  and  Standing  of  Manufacturers.  In  purchasing  a 
vehicle,  it  is  well  to  study  the  character  of  the  manufacturers,  and  is 
desirable  to  visit  their  manufacturing  shop.  It  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  it  is  quite  likely  that  the  purchaser  will  have  to  have  some 
repair  work  done  on  his  car.  Is  the  company  you  are  considering 


156 


AUTOMOBILES 


Fig.  148.    Orient  Blackboard. 
Waltham  Manufacturing  Company,  Waltham,  Mass. 


w1?;*,149'  *9rient  Buckl>oard,  with  Detachable  Top. 
Waltham  Manufacturing  Company,  Waltham,  Mass 


AUTOMOBILES 


157 


well  enough  organized  so  that  they  will  give  your  repair  order  prompt 
attention?  Is  the  company  reliable  enough  to  manufacture  standard 
and  interchangeable  parts  throughout  a  whole  season,  or  is  it  a  com- 
pany whose  individual  cars  vary  with  the  whim  of  the  shop  proprie- 
tors and  the  carelessness  and  inaccuracy  of  the  shop  workmen?  Is 
it  a  car  whose  cones,  shafts,  rods,  bolts,  and  details  in  general  are 
of  all  manner  of  varieties  and  sizes  due  to  the  enthusiasm  of  non- 
technical shop  owners  who  are  so  anxious  to  keep  up  to  date  that 
they  keep  changing  standards  constantly?  Are  the  managing  heads 


Fig.  150.    Runabout. 
Northern  Automobile  Company,  Detroit,  Mich. 

of  the  company  technical  men,  engineers  capable  of  designing  and 
manufacturing  a  high-grade  engineering  product? 

Owing  to  the  great  demand  for  motor-cars,  there  has  been  a  rush 
into  the  business,  of  manufacturers  who  are  in  no  way  qualified  to 
build  a  high-grade  mechanical  product  or  to  take  care  of  the  pur- 
chaser's repair  troubles. 

Men  personally  may  be  admirably  qualified  to  build  wheel- 
barrows, infant  perambulators,  farmers'  buggies,  and  simple  agri- 
cultural machinery;  but  these  same  men  are  not  necessarily  by  any 
means  qualified  to  build  motor-cars.  The  qualifications  required 
for  the  conduct  of  high-class  automobile  manufacturing  enterprises 
are  of  a  very  special  class.  The  following  instance  in  connection 


158 


AUTOMOBILES 


with  non-technical  ownership  of  an  automobile  shop,  will  serve  as  an 
example  showing  the  dangers  to  which  the  purchaser  exposes  him- 
self by  buying  from  such  a  shop: 

A  motor-car  company  recently  hired  a  first-class  designer  for  a 
short  time  to  work  up  engine  designs,  and  then  let  him  go — quite 
a  usual  procedure.  As  the  fashion  changed,  larger  cylinders  were 
demanded.  So  the  company  had  their  drafting  force,  now  without 


Fig.  151.    Runabout,  with  Detachable  Top. 
Cadillac  Motor  Car  Company,  Detroit,  Mich. 

any  competent  designing  head,  put  in  the  larger  cylinders  without 
making  the  proper  alterations  in  design  of  bearings,  shafts,  and  other 
parts.  The  result  was  that  the  following  season's  output  of  engines 
simply  went  to  pieces. 

Price.  What  price  ought  I  to  pay  for  my  car?  Can  I  get  a 
good  car  for  the  price  limit  I  have  set?  To  a  large  extent  these 
questions  will  confine  themselves  to  certain  limits  after  the  question 
has  been  decided  into  which  class  your  car  will  come  by  reason  of  the 
purposes  for  which  it  will  be  used  the  majority  of  the  time. 

There  will  unquestionably  be  a  great  market  for  fairly  light  cars 


AUTOMOBILES 


159 


Fig.  152.    Jewel  Runabout. 
Forest  City  Motor  Car  Company,  Massillon,  Ohio. 


Fig.  153.    Suburban  Runabout. 

Baker  Motor  Vehicle  Company,  Cleveland,  Ohio.— Mr.  W.  C.  Baker, 
Designer  of  First  Baker  Electric,  in  Car. 


160 


AUTOMOBILES 


to  be  run  at  moderate  speeds  and  to  be  sold  at  prices  between  $500 
and  $1,500.  A  person  needs  to  be  particularly  careful  in  selecting  a 
car  which  is  sold  within  this  range  of  prices,  especially  if  the  manu- 
facturing company  is  a  new  one. 

In  competition  with  such  cars,  it  is  worth  while  to  consider  a 
second-hand  car  of  well-known  high-grade  make  as  a*  wholly  qualified 


Fig.  l;W,    Stanhope. 

Sometimes  equipped  with  detachable  rumble  seat. 
Studebaker  Bros.  Mfg.  Co.,  South  Bend,  Ind. 

rival  of  the  cheaper  new  car.  In  inspecting  such  a  car,  it  is  advisable 
to  employ  the  services  of  an  expert,  or  of  an  experienced  driver  or 
other  thoroughly  competent  person  who  is  as  able  to  give  advice  on 
the  merits  of  an  automobile  as  is  a  piano  expert  or  veterinarian  in  his 
own  special  line.  In  considering  a  second-hand  car  as  compared 
with  a  new  car  of  cheaper  make,  it  is  advisable  to  look  up  second- 
hand cars  of  the  same  general  type  and  the  same  horse-power  as  the  new 


AUTOMOBILES 


161 


Fig.  155.    Baker  Electric  Stanhope. 

Especially  adapted  for  driving  by  women. 

Baker  Motor  Vehicle  Company,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 


Pig.  156.     Dos-a-Dos. 
A  type  of  seat  arrangement  (back  to  back)  now  no  longer  regularly  manufactured. 


162  AUTOMOBILES 


car.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  if  a  second-hand  car  of  higher  horse- 
power is  purchased,  it  will  cost  more  to  maintain  than  the  new  car  of 
smaller  horse-power  would.  It  will  consume  more  gasoline,  and  the 
work  on  the  tires  and  consequent  wear  will  be  much  heavier.  It 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  cost  of  operation  and  repairs  is  a 
higher  percentage  of  first  cost  in  high-power  than  in  low-power  cars. 
It  is  difficult  to  state  in  exact  figures  how  much  this  cost  of  operation 


Fig.  157.    Electric  Brougham  or  Coup6,  Inside-Driven. 
Baker  Motor  Vehicle  Company,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

and  repairs  will  be;  that  depends  on  the  amount  of  driving  a  man 
does.  With  a  high-power  fast  car,  the  temptation  is  to  drive  hard, 
and  thus  run  up  the  cost  of  fuel  and  tires. 

In  considering  first  cost  and  cost  of  maintenance  of  an  auto- 
mobile, it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  motor-car  is  practically 
horses  and  carriage  combined.  Certainly  its  first  cost,  in  order  that 
it  may  be  a  good  car,  must  be  as  high  as  that  of  an  extra  high-grade 
horse-propelled  carriage,  plus  the  cost  of  a  well-built  engine  and 
necessary  transmission  apparatus.  Its  stable  bill  is  little  after  it  is 
at  rest.  The  gasoline  bill  depends  upon  the  mileage. 


AUTOMOBILES 


163 


Tires.  The  largest  item  of  expense  is  the  tire  bill.  When  we 
speak  of  tires,  we  naturally  think  only  of  pneumatic  tires.  Not 
sufficient  attention  has  been  given  to  the  use  of  solid  tires  or  of  metal - 
shod  pneumatic  tires,  each  of  which  type  has  certain  advantages  in 
connection  with  commercial  vehicles.  Pneumatic  tires  are  undoubt- 
edly the  most  comfortable,  but  they  are  also  by  far  the  most  costly. 


Pig.  15£   Rear-Driven  Brougham.    A  type  now  superseded  by  the  front-driven  Brougham. 
Baker  Motor  Vehicle  Company,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Second=Hand  Cars.  Frequently  it  is  the  custom  for  a  novice  to 
buy  a  second-hand  car  for  his  first  season's  experience. 

The  following  rules  should  be  observed  in  buying  a  second- 
hand car: 

Pay  no  attention  to  paint,  varnish,  or  upholstery. 

Insist  on  a  day's  trial  on  hills  and  rough  roads. 

Dismantle  engine,  and  examine  condition  of  cylinders  and  bearings.  If 
bearings  are  scored  or  cylinder  manifests  any  crack  when  a  candle  or  incan- 
descent light  is  put  inside  the  cylinder  in  the  dark,  the  car  should  not  be  bought. 

See  that  the  axles  are  straight,  and  that  all  wheels  run  true  and  parallel. 

Find  number  and  type  of  engine  as  marked  on  it  somewhere,  and  write 
to  manufacturers  of  engine  for  date  of  manufacture.  Many  automobile  manu- 
facturers have  the  engines  built  at  other  shops,  and  the  name  of  the  manufac- 
turer of  the  engine  needs  to  be  secured. 

In  the  case  of  an  electric  car,  have  the  batteries  discharged  through  a 
recording  voltmeter  and  ammeter;  and  see  that  the  amperage  of  discharge  is 
equal  to  the  force  required  to  run  the  car  on  a  level  road.  See  that  the  motor 
is  in  good  condition  and  shows  no  evidence  of  overheated  insulation. 


164 


AUTOMOBILES 


Fig.  159.    Baker  Electric  Surrey,  with  Cape  Top. 

Can  be  quickly  converted  into  an  Inclosed  vehicle  in  stormy  weather. 
Baker  Motor  Vehicle  Company,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 


Fig.  160     Baker  Electric  Victoria. 

Especially  adapted  as  a  private  carriage  for  shopping  or  for  park  or  avenue  driving. 
Baker  Motor  Vehicle  Company,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 


AUTOMOBILES 


165 


Demonstrations.  In  investigating  the  relative  merits  of  dif- 
ferent types  of  cars,  one  should  not  lay  too  much  stress  on  a  single 
demonstration.  The  conditions  on  the  occasion  of  that  demon- 


Fig.  161.    Touring  Car,  Seven-Passenger,  30-Horse-Power. 
Peerless  Motor  Car  Company,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

stration  may  have  been  exceptionally  good  or  exceptionally  bad. 
The  demonstration  may  have  been  tuned  to  the  prospective  buyer's 
fancies  as  indicated  to  an  observant  salesman  who  has  carefully 


Fig.  162.    Prayer-Miller  Touring  Car,  24-Horse-Power. 
Oscar  Lear  Automobile  Company,  Springfield,  Ohio. 

noted  them  and  has  instructed  the  demonstrator  accordingly. 

Into  whichever  classification  our  car  may  come  so  far  as  regards 
the  purpose  for  which  it  is  to  be  used,  it  is  certainly  sure  that  it  is 
always  the  wise  course  to  demand  of  the  car  just  a  little  less  than  its 


166 


AUTOMOBILES 


limit  of  capacity,  speed,  or  endurance.     The  cheaper  the  car,  the 
more  important  is  this  caution. 


163.    Franklin  Touring  Car,  with  Detachable  or  Cape  Top. 
H.  Franklin  Manufacturing  Company,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


Fig.  164.    Touring  Car,  with  Detachable  Top. 

Four-Cylinder,  40-Horse-Power. 
American  Locomotive  Automobile  Company,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

In  watching  a  demonstration,  one  should  note  particularly 
whether  there  is  difficulty,  delay,  or  noise  in  changing  gears;  diffi- 
culty or  delay  in  braking;  overheating;  or  trouble  in  starting. 


AUTOMOBILES 


167 


Relation  between  Horse=Power  and  Weight  of  Car.  Formerly 
a  car  was  considered  as  being  powerful  enough  if  it  had  one  horse- 
power to  100  pounds.  Popular  demand  at  the  present  time  is  for  a 
horse-power  to  every  50  or  75  pounds.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  it 
eliminates  the  necessity  of  a  change  in  gears,  permitting  running  on  the 


Fig.  165.    Jewel  Roadster. 
Forest  City  Motor  Car  Company,  Massillon,  Ohio. 


Fig.  166.    Roadster,  30-Horse-Power. 
Peerless  Motor  Car  Company,  Cleveland,  Ohio.  * 

high  gear  practically  all  the  time,  even  when  hill  climbing.  With 
abundant  power  in  the  engine,  the  disadvantage  of  running  the  engine 
at  high  speed  is  done  away  with  a  large  part  of  the  time.  Continued 
running  at  high  speed  means  the  wearing-out  of  the  different  parts. 
The  slower  the  engine  is  run  without  straining  it,  the  longer  it  will 
last. 


168 


AUTOMOBILES 


High  speed  and  great  weight  always  mean  a  great  amount  of 
wear  and  tear.  Going  at  high  speed  is  to  most  people  far  from  a 
pleasing  sensation,  when  kept  up  as  a  regular  thing. 

The  power  developed  by  gasoline  motors  or  engines  several 
years  ago  was  not  much  more  than  one-half,  for  a  given  diameter  of 
cylinder  and  stroke,  of  what  it  is  to-day.  A  few  years  ago  a  good 
water-cooled  motor  averaged  from  13  to  15  pounds  weight  of  engine 
to  the  horse-power.  This  figure  has  been  reduced  to  as  low  as  10 
pounds  of  weight  to  the  horse-power. 


Fig.  167.    Sportabout. 
Knox  Automobile  Company,  Springfield,  Mass. 


Easy  Riding.  A  great  aid  to  easy  riding  is  to  have  the  center 
of  gravity  of  the  car  as  near  the  ground  as  possible,  with,  however, 
plenty  of  clearance  below  the  front  and  rear  axles.  Large  wheels 
permit  of  this  clearance  and  give  easier  riding,  as  they  do  not  go  into 
small  ruts  or  bumps.  A  low  center  of  gravity  gives  less  bounding 
and  less  danger  of  turning  the  car  over.  With  a  low  car,  large  wheels 
must  be  used. 

Rear  trucks  should  be  located  well  back,  as  in  this  position  easier 
riding  is  secured. 

Long  springs  are  conducive  to  easy  riding.  The  American 
Berliet  has  a  rear  spring  43  inches  long,  and  a  front  spring  36 
inches  long. 


AUTOMOBILES  169 


Springs  built  up  of  leaves  of  considerable  width,  and  relatively 
thin — for  example,  not  less  than  1J  inches  wide  and  J  inch  thick — 
have  been  found  to  wear  better  than  those  with  narrower  and  thicker 
laminations. 

The  easy-riding  qualities  of  a  spring  depend  on  its  resilience 
and  its  ability  to  absorb  shocks  without  undue  recoil.  As  already 
stated,  this  action  is  facilitated  by  the  use  of  a  long  spring.  In  this 
respect  the  three-quarter  elliptic  is  better  than  the  half-  or  full-elliptic, 
excepting  where  the  half-elliptic  is  suspended  to  a  cross-spring  at 


Fig.  168.    Frayer-Miller  TaxicaD. 

Partly  a  pleasure,  partly  a  commercial  vehicle.    Extra  seats  for  four  passengers 

in  rear.    Equipped  for  public  service  and  supplied  with  a  taximeter. 

Oscar  Lear  Automobile  Company,  Springfield,  Ohio. 

right  angles  to  it.  Various  types  of  hinged  or  dashpot  types  of  shock 
absorbers  have  also  been  used  with  success  to  lessen  the  recoil  action 
of  springs.  It  is  claimed  in  behalf  of  the  three-quarter  elliptic,  that 
it  acts  as  a  shock  absorber.  The  three-quarter  elliptic  is  simply  a 
half-elliptic  with  a  quarter-elliptic  supporting  one  end  of  it;  or  it 
might  also  be  defined  as  a  full-elliptic  with  one  upper  quarter  cut 
away. 

Ease  of  Access.  The  parts  liable  to  require  adjustment  at  any 
time  should  be  easy  of  access,  without  the  need  of  dismantling  or 
partially  dismantling  the  car. 

Among  the  parts  which  are  likely  to  require  adjustment,  and 


170 


AUTOMOBILES 


which  should  always  be  easy  of  access,  are:  Engine  inlet  and  ex- 
haust valves;  commutators;  pumps  (oil  and  water);  clutches;  clutch 
springs;  gears;  brakes;  throttle  and  spark  rods. 

Of  late  years,  considerable  attention  has  been  paid  by  most 
makers  to  securing  accessibility  of  engine  parts;  but  the  same  is  not 
true  of  the  rest  of  the  mechanism. 

In  the  case  of  the  engine  as  a  whole,  there  is  no  question  but  that 
it  is  easier  to  lift  off  a  hood  than  to  lift  out  the  floor.  At  the  same 
time,  in  the  case  of  clutch  and  clutch  springs,  it  is  easier  to  lift  out  the 


Fig.  169.    Limousine,  Four-Cy Under,  22-Horse-Power,  Shaft  Drive. 
American  Locomotive  Automobile  Company,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

floor  than  to  have  to  take  off  the  whole  body.  Almost  all  vehicles 
are  built  so  that  the  floor  can  be  taken  out;  but  in  many  the  design 
is  such  that  after  that  is  done  the  parts  are  not  sufficiently  accessible. 

INSTRUCTION  IN  DRIVING 

It  is  not  at  all  difficult  to  learn  the  function  and  method  of  opera- 
tion of  the  parts  which  have  to  be  handled  in  driving  a  car.  These 
parts  include  the  steering  wheel,  the  throttle  and  ignition  levers,  and 
the  brake  and  change-gear  levers  and  pedals. 

To  become  an  expert  driver,  however,  is  a  different  matter. 
This  requires  alertness  of  mind;  a  refinement  of  the  senses  of  sight, 
touch,  hearing,  and  smelling;  and  an  ability  to  anticipate  conditions 


AUTOMOBILES 


171 


which  are  to  be  met.  A  person  whose  mind  and  senses  are  sluggish 
will  never  make  a  good  driver.  Experience  in  bicycling  or  in  sailing 
is  of  value,  since  it  has  brought  into  play  the  same  mind  and 
sense  training  that  are  required  in  automobiling.  The  first  attempt 
at  automobiling  should  be  made  in  company  with  an  experienced 
driver,  who  sits  next  to  the  novice,  controlling  everything  at  first  ex- 
cept the  steering  wheel.  The  car  should  be  run  at  its  slowest  speed. 
After  the  steering  has  been  fairly  mastered,  instruction  is  given  by 
the  driver  in  one  after  the  other  of  the  parts;  but  plenty  of  time 
should  be  taken,  and  the  points  taken  up  only  one  at  a  time. 


Fig.  170     Limousine,  30-Horse-Power. 
Peerless  Motor  Car  Company,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

When  learning,  one  should  practice  making  short  turns,  start- 
ing, stopping,  changing  speeds,  driving  backwards,  and  turning  the 
car  about. 

From  the  very  start,  avoid  using  the  brakes,  so  as  not  to  get 
into  the  habit. 

Gear  Reduction.  The  usual  range  of  reduction  of  drive-shaft 
speed  to  rear-axle  is  from  4  to  1  to  2^  to  1,  the  most  prevalent  being 
about  3  to  1.  Some  of  the  lighter  cars  are  equipped  with  a  greater 
reduction,  the  Cadillac  having  used  a  4 . 9  to  1  ratio  for  a  considerable 
time.  With  a  greater  gear  reduction,  the  fault  of  most  drivers,  of 
running  too  fast,  is  held  in  check;  and  there  is  less  wear  and  tear  on 
the  car  as  a  whole,  although  the  engine  will  always  be  running  at  a 


172 


AUTOMOBILES 


higher  speed  than  with  a  lower  gear  reduction.  The  advantages  of 
a  low  reduction  consist  in  the  fact  that  the  engine  and  all  intermediate 
moving  parts  between  the  engine  and  rear  axle  run  at  lower  speed  and 
are  subject  to  less  wear  with  a  low  reduction.  For  instance,  with 
a  ratio  of  3  to  1,  the  engine  shaft  would  be  running  three  times 
as  fast  as  the  rear  axle,  and  with  the  ratio  4.9  to  1,  the  engine 
would  be  running  4 . 9  times  as  fast.  On  the  other  hand,  it  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  with  the  latter  arrangement  one  could  run 


Fig.  171.    Landaulet,  Four-Cylinder,  22-Horse-Power,  Shaft  Drive. 
American  Locomotive  Automobile  Company,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

his  car  as  fast  and  would  not  wear  out  his  tires  as  fast  as  with  a  low 
ratio. 

Range  of  Speeds  Obtainable  through  Gears.  Most  cars  with 
gear  reduction  provide  three  changes  of  speed.  If  the  engine  power 
is  liberal  for  the  weight  of  the  car,  it  is  likely  that  the  driver  will  seldom 
make  use  of  more  than  two  speeds;  and  a  number  of  cars  built  at 
moderate  price  for  family  use  are  appreciating  this  fact  by  providing 
but  two  speeds. 

The  same  is  true  of  a  heavy  car  provided  with  a  liberal  surplus  of 
engine  power.  For  instance,  for  motors  having  six  or  eight  cylinders, 
two  speeds  would  be  amply  sufficient. 

Levers  and  Pedals.  The  positions  of  levers  for  varying  speeds 
should  be  so  distinct  that  there  will  be  no  likelihood  of  making  mis- 
takes through  absent-mindedness,  carelessness,  or  "getting  rattled." 


, 

GO 
rtt3 

og 

EH  .5 

U 

S  >> 


C/3 

II 


g 


fS;^'* 


174 


AUTOMOBILES 


For  instance,  in  an  arrangement  in  which  throwing  the  lever  forward 
means  full  speed,  throwing  it  backward  means  slow  speed,  and  the 
foot-pedal  is  used  for  reversing  and  braking,  there  is  less  liability  to 
error  than  in  arrangements  where  one  lever  has  to  do  nearly  all  of 
these  tasks,  especially  where  the  lever  position  itself  is  not  suggestive 
of  the  result. 

Any  car  should  be  made  so  that  as  much  of  its  operation  as  pos- 
sible can  be  done  by  foot-pedals. 

Power.     The    test    of   power   is   hill-climbing.      Whatever  the 


Fig.  173.    Cabriolet. 
Studebaker  Bros.  Mfg.  Co.,  South  Bend,  Ind. 

rated  load  of  a  car,  it  should  take  that  load  up  a  hill  easily  and  with- 
out strain,  and  at  a  good  speed.  A  car  that  can  go  thirty  miles  an 
hour  down  hill,  and  only  four  miles  an  hour  up  hill,  would,  if  we 
had  a  hill  a  mile  up  and  a  mile  down,  take  for  the  two  miles  15  min- 
utes up  and  two  minutes  down,  or  at  the  rate  of  8J  minutes  per  mile. 
A  car  going  up  the  hill  at  ten  miles  an  hour,  and  down  it  at  twenty 
miles  an  hour,  would  take  6  minutes  up  and  3  minutes  down,  or  9 
minutes  altogether,  making  the  average  speed  of  4J  minutes  per 
mile,  just  about  twice  the  average  speed  of  the  light-power  high- 
speed car;  and  this  average  would  be  maintained  on  a  day's  run 
over  ordinary  up  and  down,  smooth  and  rough  roads.  With  an 
under-powered  car,  there  is  always  the  temptation  to  scorch  when 


AUTOMOBILES  175 


on  the  level  or  going  down  grade,  wearing  out  tires  and  increasing 
the  danger  of  accidents.  With  amply  powered  cars,  this  desire  to 
scorch  to  make  up  time  passes  away,  because  the  real  running  time 
is  lessened. 

Drivers.  If  one  does  not  intend  to  drive  his  own  car,  he  cer- 
tainly needs  a  competent  driver.  It  is  as  much  of  a  mistake  to  put 
a  man  who  has  been  a  coachman  in  charge  of  a  motor-car  as  to  put 
him  in  charge  of  a  power  plant.  A  man  qualified  to  take  good  care 
of  animals  may  not  be  at  all  competent  to  operate  intricate  machinery. 


Fig.  174.    Light  Delivery  Wagon. 
Waltham  Manufacturing  Company,  Waltham,  Mass. 

The  chauffeur  needs  to  be  a  combination  of  gentleman  and  engineer; 
and  such  a  one  can  be  secured  only  by  paying  at  least  the  wages  of  a 
competent  engineer. 

Steering  Gear.  As  the  most  serious  and  dangerous  accidents 
are  likely  to  occur  as  a  result  of  a  break  in  some  part  of  the  steering 
gear,  it  is  highly  important  that  all  parts  going  to  make  up  this  feature 
of  the  vehicle  be  extraordinarily  strong.  The  movement  should  be 
positive,  with  provisions  for  taking  up  wear.  Back-lash  in  steering 
mechanisms  in  very  undesirable. 

Steel  castings  are  the  only  class  of  castings  that  can  be  con- 
sidered in  connection  with  steering  gear.  Cast  or  malleable  iron  is 
unfit  for  use  in  this  connection.  Forgings  should  be  of  a  high  grade 
of  metal,  and  forged  in  a  manner  that  will  guarantee  that  no  over- 
heating shall  occur.  A  visit  to  the  manufacturers'  plant  or  to  the 
plant  of  the  concern  from  which  one  buys  his  parts  for  steering  gear* 
is  well  worth  while. 


176 


AUTOMOBILES 


Breaking  of  levers  or  any  rod  or  link  or  fastening  in  the  steer- 
ing mechanism,  will  almost  always  cause  some  kind  of  accident. 

Clothing.  When  driving  at  twenty  miles  an  hour,  the  air  will 
actually  pass  through  ordinary  overcoats  and  cloth  garments;  hence 
it  is  necessary  that  clothing  be  air-proof,  and  so  contrived  that  air 
will  not  get  under  the  garments. 

Leather  clothing  does  not  permit  of  the  evaporation  of  the 


Fig.  175.    Delivery  Car. 
Cadillac  Motor  Car  Company,  Detroit,  Mich. 

natural  moisture  of  the  body;  hence,  when  it  is  used,  it  should  be 
provided  with  small  holes  so  placed  as  to  provide  for  the  evaporation 
of  this  moisture,  and  at  the  same  time  to  prevent  admission  of  wind 
and  rain. 

The  coat  should  by  all  means  be  so  made  as  to  fit  closely  at  the 
wrists.  Goggles  are  indispensable  if  no  front  glass  is  used  on  the 
car. 

It  is  worth  remembering  that  if  you  are  in  a  rain  and  have  no 
top,  the  seat  cushion  should  be  put  inside  your  coat  and  not 
outside. 


AUTOMOBILES 


177 


Top.  If  the  purchaser  intends  to  maintain  but  one  auto- 
mobile, the  body  should  by  all  means  be  provided  with  either  a 
permanent  or  an  easily  attachable  top.  It  is  beginning  to  be 
appreciated  that  an  automobile  is  not  merely  a  fair-weather  vehicle, 
but  a  carriage  for  all  seasons.  A  modernly  equipped  automobile 
provides  protection  against  bad  weather,  and  does  away  with  the 
necessity  for  wearing  strange  apparel  making  one  resemble  a  diver. 

A  person  who  is  desirous  of  traveling  in  comfort  will  provide 
his  car  with  a  suitable  cover  as  a  protection  against  wind,  rain,  dust, 


Fig.  176.     Auto-Bus  or  Omnibus. 
Studebaker  Bros. -Mfg.  Co.,  South  Bend,  Ind. 

and  mud,  without  his  having  to  wear  any  hideous  garments.  There 
are  certain  conditions,  however,  where  a  car  must  be  driven  stripped 
—for  instance,  in  conducting  mileage  trials  of  cars  in  process  of 
manufacture.  Experienced  road  testers  have  all  come  to  learn  the 
need  of  a  tight  band  about  the  neck  and  sleeves.  Goggles,  ugly  as 
they  are,  are  indispensable  to  anyone  going  faster  than  moderate 
speeds  in  a  car  not  provided  with  glass  front. 

Accessories.  The  number  of  accessories  is  legion.  Many  of 
these  are  of  doubtful  utility,  and  are  likely  to  become  a  source  of 
annoyance  after  the  wane  of  the  first  enthusiasm. 


3     2 

en     <3 
•  &.-Q  w 
So  t  -S 

3   11 

x  o* 


a  k  v 

i«g 

^ 


AUTOMOBILES  179 


Powerful  searchlights  are  disagreeable;  owing  to  the  sharp 
contrast,  everything  not  in  their  range  is  invisible. 

Acetylene  lamps  are  usually  more  troublesome  than  oil  lamps  if 
the  gas  is  generated  on  the  car.  The  use  of  compressed  gas  which 
is  supplied  in  cylindrical  tanks  attached  to  the  side  of  the  car,  has 
become  almost  universal. 

Small  dynamos  for  furnishing  lights  can  be  attached  to  the  car 
as  easily  as  a  dynamo  for  sparking,  and  are  likely  to  gain  in  popu- 
larity. 

An  article  which  perhaps  is  more  of  a  tool  than  an  accessory, 
and  which  should  not  be  overlooked  by  any  means,  is  the  jack.  This 
article  should  not  be  kept  at  home,  but  should  be  carried  with  the 
car. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  MOTOR-CARS 

We  have  already  classified  cars  on  the  basis  of  their  power 
plants  and  methods  of  power  transmission.  They  may  also  be 
classified  according  to  the  special  uses  to  which  they  are  put,  and 
from  this  standpoint  fall  under  two  broad  headings — (1)  Passenger 
Vehicles;  (2)  Commercial  Vehicles.  These  groups  may  be  further 
classified  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  diagram,  Fig.  177. 

The  various  types  of    cars  may  be  more  fully  described  as 

follows : 

Passenger  Vehicles  with  One  or  Two  Seats 

1.  Buckboard — Figs.  148,  149. 

Has  a  skeleton  frame  with  no  body.     Very 'light  weight. 

2.  Runabout— Figs.  150,  151,  152,  153. 

A  vehicle  with  or  without  a  top,  having  capacity  for  two  passengers. 
Particularly  adapted  for  business  purposes  or  pleasure,  because  it  is 
so  compact,  neat,  and  handy. 

3.  Stanhope— Figs,  154,  155. 

A  two-seated  vehicle  with  a  top.  So  named  after  Lord  Stanhope. 
The  top  is  usually  open  or  of  the  Victoria  style.  This  type  of  vehicle 
is  of  better  finish  and  design  than  the  runabout,  and  is  in  great  favor 
with  ladies  and  physicians. 

4.  Dos-a-Dos— Fig.  156. 

Runabout  style  with  two  seats  back  to  back.  Bodies  of  this  type 
are  not  now  regularly  on  the  market;  they  are  made  only  on  special 
order. 

5.  Brougham  or  Coupe — Figs.  157,158. 

A  one-  or  two-seated  car  with  the  body  entirely  enclosed  or  with  the 


180  AUTOMOBILES 


driver's  seat  left  exposed.  This  vehicle  is  popular  with  physicians, 
as  it  affords  such  excellent  protection  against  wind  and  storm. 

Passenger  Vehicles  with  Two  or  More  Seats 

1.  Surrey— Fig.  159. 

A  car  of  very  light  weight,  with  two  seats,  one  of  which  may  be 
folded  away  when  not  in  use.  Sometimes  made  with  a  side  entrance, 
in  which  case  it  resembles  a  touring  car.  The  Victoria  (Fig.  160)  is 
with  many  a  favorite  type  of  private  family  carriage. 

2.  Touring  Car— Figs.  161,  162,  163,  164. 

So  called  because  it  is .  constructed  to  withstand  long  drives  over 
country  roads.  Usually  seen  without  a  top.  The  top  which  may 
be  used  with  this  type  of  car  is  called  a  canopy  top,  and  can  be  taken 
off  and  folded  away  when  not  in  use.  A  folding  glass  front  is  also 
used;  but,  unless  the  car  has  a  high  power,  it  will  set  up  a  resistance 
to  the  wind.  The  Roadster  or  Sportabout  (Figs.  165,  166,  167)  is  a 


Fig.  178.    Stage  for  Eighteen  Passengers. 
Oscar  Lear  Automobile  Company,  Spriagfield,  Ohio. 

type  that  may  be  said  to  be  intermediate  between  the  runabout  and 
the  touring  car,  combining  the  features  of  compactness,  strength, 
durability,  and  speed.  The  Taxicab  (Fig.  168)  is  partly  a  pleasure, 
partly  a  commercial  vehicle,  equipped  for  public  service  and  sup- 
plied with  a  taximeter. 

3.  Limousine— Figs.  169,  170. 

Similar  to  a  canopy-topped  touring  car,  except  that  this  style  of  car 
has  its  sides  more  or  less  completely  enclosed.  A  great  objection 
to  the  limousine  is  its  immense  weight. 

4.  Landaulet — Fig.  171. 

Similar  to  the  limousine.  Instead  of  its  top  and  sides  being  of  rigid 
construction,  they  may  be  folded  down  when  not  in  use. 


AUTOMOBILES 


181 


5.  Pullman— Fig.   172. 
This  is    a    very  large 
car,  seating    six    per- 
sons.    Often   entirely 
enclosed     except     for 
driver's    seat,  and 
usually  provided  with 
tables,  rotating  chairs, 
and  sometimes  sleep- 
ing  accommodations. 

6.  Cabriolet— Fig.  173. 

Has  a  Royal  Victoria 
top  over  rear  seat. 
Otherwise,  in  style 
and  shape,  it  re- 
sembles the  touring 
car. 

Commercial 
Light= Weight  Vehicles 

1.  Delivery   Wagon — Fig. 

174. 

Corresponds  in  weight 
and  horse-power  to 
the  runabout,  and  is 
used  as  a  parcel  de- 
livery or  for  laundry 
work. 

2.  Delivery  Car — Fig. 

175. 

The  weight  and  horse- 
power are  similar  to 
those  of  the  touring 
car.  Can  be  used  for 
heavier  work  than  the 
"wagon." 

Commercial 
Heavy-Weight  Vehicles 

1.  Auto-Bus  or  Omnibus 

—Figs.  176,  178. 
Used  for  commercial 
purposes,  either  for 
sight-seeing  or  to  con- 
vey passengers  to  and 
from  depots. 

2.  Truck— Figs.  179,  180. 


182  AUTOMOBILES 


This  is  in  a  class  by  itself  because  of  its  exceptionally  great  weight 
and  power,  and  is  geared  for  slow  speed.  The  Van  (Fig.  181)  is  an 
enclosed  truck  for  heavy  service. 

Purposes  for  which  the  Automobile  is  Wanted.  In  selecting 
an  automobile,  the  first  question  to  consider  is  the  purpose  for  which 
the  vehicle  is  to  be  used  the  greater  part  of  the  time.  The  various 
purposes  for  which  cars  are  used  may  be  indicated  as  follows : 

1.  A  business  man's  means  of  conveyance  between  his  business  office 
and  his  residence. 

2.  A  conveyance  used  by  ladies  in  making  calls  or  in  shopping. 

3.  A  physician's  vehicle. 

4.  A  vehicle  owned  by  a  businessestablishment  forpurposesof  trans- 
portation and  entertainment  of  customers  and  guests. 

5.  A  family  vehicle  for  pleasure  drives. 

6.  A  vehicle  for  sport  on  land,  corresponding  to  the  power  yacht  in 
water. 

7.  A  light  delivery  wagon. 

8.  A  truck,  a  dray,  or  a  van. 

9.  An  omnibus. 

10.     A  self-propelling  railway  car. 

Having  determined  under  which  of  the  above  headings  our 
vehicle  will  come,  we  shall  consider  what  type  of  vehicle  is  adapted 
to  meet  our  special  requirements. 

CLASS  1.  A  business  man's  means  of  conveyance  between  his 
business  office  and  residence. 

In  towns  and  smaller  cities,  and  for  a  run  of  not  to  exceed  five 
miles  between  residence  and  office,  if  roads  are  good,  the  electric 
vehicle  is  available  for  this  purpose.  In  cities  like  Indianapolis, 
Ind.,  and  Columbus,  Ohio,  a  large  number  of  electric  vehicles  are 
put  to  this  use. 

In  larger  cities,  and  where  fine  roads  are  not  so  abundant,  how- 
ever, the  gasoline  car  is  preferable  on  account  of  its  greater  speed 
and  power.  In  the  case  of  light  cars  for  this  purpose,  the  tendency 
is  in  the  direction  of  two-cylinder  runabouts.  A  decreasing  number 
of  single-cylinder  makes  is  being  marketed  every  year. 

CLASS  2.     A  conveyance  for  ladies. 

There  is  but  little  question  that  for  this  purpose  the  electric 
vehicle  is  the  best.  As  between  a  motor-car  and  horses  for  this 
service,  there  is  nothing  but  sentiment  in  favor  of  the  horse,  as  one  car 


AUTOMOBILES 


183 


will  take  the  place  of  several  pairs  of  horses.  The  electric  is  pre- 
eminently a  city  and  suburban  car,  and  in  this  field  it  is  permanent. 
It  is  by  far  the  simplest  to  operate.  More  members  of  a  family  can 
use  it  than  would  be  the  case  with  any  other  form  of  motive  power. 
It  is  silent  and  swift  enough  for  safe  driving.  It  requires  less  atten- 
tion and  care  than  any  other  type  of  car,  and  consequently  its  cost  of 
maintenance  is  less.  Its  radius  of  operation  is  limited  to  some  ten 
or  twelve  miles,  however. 


Fig.  180.    Prayer-Miller  Motor-Truck. 

For  delivery  of  furniture  or  other  bulky  and  heavy  goods. 

Oscar  Lear  Automobile  Company,  Springfield,  Ohio. 

Among  the  advantages  claimed  for  electrical  vehicles  are  the 
following : 

They  are  always  ready — something  which  can  hardly  be  said  of  any 
other  type  of  automobile.  They  can  be  operated  at  less  cost,  day  by  day, 
than  any  other  type  of  car.  They  can  be  used  in  all  sorts  of  weather  and  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year,  being  the  only  satisfactory  cars  for  winter  use. 

CLASS  3.     A  physician's  vehicle. 

A  physician  is  likely  to  want  to  take  a  great  number  of  rel- 
atively short  trips  in  all  sorts  of  weather.  If  his  mileage  does 
not  exceed  the  limits  of  an  electric  vehicle,  which  at  a  con- 
servative estimate  may  be  put  at  30  to  35  miles  per  day  on 


184  AUTOMOBILES 


fair  roads  without  steep  hills,  the  electric  car  is  by  far  the  most  con- 
venient. 

The  noise  of  a  gasoline  car  is  likely  to  be  objectionable,  particu- 
larly in  case  the  engine  is  left  running  while  the  car  stands;  and  if 
the  engine  is  shut  off,  the  physician  has  to  lose  some  time  and  do 
some  work  in  starting. 

The  steam  car  would  be  freer  from  the  objection  of  noise;  but, 
like  the  gasoline  car,  it  has  the  disadvantage  of  taking  more  time  to 
start  after  a  stop  than  does  the  electric. 

Where  a  physician  has  to  do  much  traveling  over  rough  roads,  or 
his  mileage  exceeds  the  limit  of  the  electric  vehicle,  the  gasoline  run- 
about would  be  the  next  choice  for  him. 

CLASS  4.  A  vehicle  owned  by  a  business  establishment  for  pur- 
poses of  transportation  and  entertainment  of  customers  and  guests. 

Business  concerns  whose  single  sales  amount  to  a  considerable 
sum,  and  who  need  to  entertain  prospective  customers  at  head- 
quarters, have  found  the  automobile  a  great  aid  to  their  sales  de- 
partments. Whether  a  vehicle  of  this  sort  shall  partake  more  of 
the  characteristics  of  a  high-class  omnibus  or  coach,  or  whether  it 
shall  be  a  high-power,  high-speed  car,  will  depend  on  the  number 
of  passengers  to  be  taken,  and  whether  the  car  will  be  used  primarily 
as  a  conveyance  or  for  entertainment. 

If  the  car  is  to  be  used  primarily  as  a  conveyance,  and  passes 
through  city  streets,  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  a  very  long  wheel- 
base  is  a  disadvantage  in  turning  corners  and  in  driving  through 
crowded  streets. 

If  the  car  is  to  be  used  primarily  for  entertainment  of  a  few 
people,  it  will  come  into  Class  6,  the  pleasure  vehicle. 

CLASS  5.     A  family  vehicle  for  pleasure  drives. 

In  this  class  it  is  important  that  the  car  possess  ability  to  stand 
considerable,  strain  for  a  short  time.  The  car  is  likely  to  be  used 
Saturdays  and  Sundays  for  country  tours.  If  the  owner  is  not  a 
man  of  mechanical  experience,  and  is  his  own  driver,  it  is  impor- 
tant that  he  look  to  simplicity  and  accessibility  of  parts  in  his  car. 
He  will  find  abundant  pleasure  in  tours  of  not  over  a  hundred  miles 
a  day.  With  this  mileage  as  a  gauge,  he  will  not  need  to  buy  a  car 
of  high  horse-power.  Twenty  to  twenty-five  horse-power  actually 
developed,  will  answer  his  requirements. 


AUTOMOBILES 


185 


The  gasoline  car  and  the  steam  car  are  the  only  ones  to  be  con- 
sidered in  this  class.  Good  two-cylinder  cars  are  built  that  come 
under  this  class. 

Still  lighter  cars  than  above  indicated  have  been  used  success- 
fully for  this  service  by  people  who  take  care  in  selecting  the  weather 
and  the  roads. 

A  comfortable,  modest-looking  vehicle  with  sufficient  power  to 
maintain  a  speed  of  twenty  miles  an  hour,  amply  silenced,  with  side 


Fig.  181 .    Frayer-Miller  Motor- Van. 

Capacity  3  Tons;  24-Horse-Power. 

Oscar  Lear  Automobile  Company,  Springfield,  Ohio. 

entrances,  is  the  type  of  car  that  will  answer  this  purpose.  By  all 
means,  such  a  vehicle  needs  a  top. 

CLASS  6.  A  vehicle  jor  sport  on  land,  corresponding  to  the  power 
yacht  in  water.  ^ 

The  purchaser  of  this  class  of  vehicle  will  probably  be  in  the 
market  every  year  for  the  very  latest  and  most  improved  vehicle  to  be 
obtained,  which  will  probably  without  question  be  a  gasoline  car 
of  at  least  30-horse-power  capacity.  The  purchaser  of  this  type  of 
car  wants  speed,  endurance,  and  power.  Hence  he  will  study  the 
chassis — namely,  the  frame  with  the  driving  mechanism,  stripped 


186  AUTOMOBILES 


of  all  accessories  and  externals.  The  external  features,  although 
pleasing  to  the  eye,  are  but  coverings  to  the  machine  itself;  and 
having  once  selected  the  machine  wanted,  he  can  have  it  fitted  up  in 
a  way  to  suit  the  most  fastidious,  provided  he  places  his  order  early 
enough. 

CLASS  7.     Light  delivery  wagon. 

For  delivery  of  light  goods,  the  motor-car  has  by  no  means 
come  into  the  general  use  which  it  is  likely  to  have  within  a  few 
years.  The  builders  of  electric  vehicles  have  up  to  this  time  been 
the  ones  to  exploit  this  market,  but  there  is  abundant  opportunity 
in  this  field  for  gasoline  cars  of  moderate  horse-power. 

CLASS  8.     Trucks;  Drays;  Vans. 

Low  gear,  long  wheel-base,  and  chain  drive  (usually  double- 
chain)  characterize  this  class  of  car.  Although  the  electric  auto- 
mobile manufacturers  were  the  first  to  enter  this  field,  gasoline- 
driven  cars  of  this  type  are  now  appearing  in  large  numbers. 

CLASS  9.    Omnibuses;  Stages. 

Both  steam  and  gasoline  cars  are  used  for  this  purpose.  Much 
dissatisfaction  and  agitation  were  caused  in  London  by  the  large 
number  of  accidents  due  to  this  class  of  vehicle,  mainly  owing  to 
their  too  high  speed  and  poor  control.  These  objections  must  be 
overcome  in  a  successful  auto-bus. 

CLASS  10.     Motor-driven  railway  coaches. 

Chiefly  electric  or  gasoline-driven.  Are  coming  into  use  on 
short  branch  lines  and  for  suburban  traffic  in  railway  service. 


INDEX 


A  Page 

Accessories,  automobile 177 

Advancing  spark , 80 

Air-cooled  engine 37 

Auto-Bus 177, 181 

Axles 9 

B 

Back-firing 127 

Balance  gears 104 

Batteries,  storage 140, 143,  146 

Bearings 116 

Body  of  motor-car 5 

Brakes 114 

Brougham 162, 179 

Buckboard 156, 179 

C 

Cabriolet 174, 180 

Cadillac  carbureter 57 

Carbureters 55,  59 

directions  for  connecting  and  adjusting  to  motor 61 

Chain  drive 10,    99 

Changing  gears 98 

Charging  storage  batteries 140 

Chauffeurs 175 

Classification  of  motor-cars 179 

Cleaning 131 

Clothing  of  automobilist 176 

Clutches 

disc 87 

metallic  constriction-band 85 

Clutch  drive 10 

Clutch  lever 86 

Commercial  vehicles , 181 

Compensating  carbureters 59 

Compression-relief  levers 83 

Cooling  systems 

air-cooling 37 

gasoline 51 

water-cooling 43,  51 

Copper-asbestos  gaskets 48 


188  INDEX 


Page 

Corrosion  in  cylinders 37 

Coupe* '. 162, 179 

Crank-shaft 27 

Cycle,  gas-engine 18 

Cylinders,  engine 24 

Cylindrical  bronze  bearings 116 

D 

Delivery  car 176, 181 

Delivery  wagon 175,  181 

Demonstrations  of  cars 165 

Differentials 104 

Direct-current  shunt-wound  dynamo  system  of  ignition 68 

Direct  drive 10,    99 

Disc  clutches 87 

Dos-a-Dos 161, 179 

Drays,  see  Trucks 

Drive 10,  99 

Driving  a  car,  instruction  in 170 

Dry-cell  and  jump-spark  system  of  ignition 63 

Dynamos  on  motor-cars 68 

E 

Electric  vehicles 136 

care  of  motor 139 

charging  stations 140 

driving 138 

storage  batteries  for • 143 

Elliptical  springs,  full  and  half 8,  9 

Emergency  hand-brake 115 

Engine 

cooling  of 37 

overheating  of 50 

principal  parts  of 25 

single-  and  multiple-cylinder 24 

starting 120 

suggestions  for  operating 123 

two-cycle •  20 

working  parts  of 21 

Engine-controlling  mechanism 

compression-relief  levers 83 

muffler  cut-out ^ 83 

spark-lever 79 

throttle-lever 80 

Escaping  water ; 127 

Explosions 127 

F 

Family  vehicles 184 


INDEX  189 


Page 

Float-feed  type  of  carbureter 57 

Floating  type  of  axle 10 

Float  valves,  leaky .-  .  62 

Flow  motor  in  steam  car 153 

Frame  of  motor-car 5 

Freezing,  protection  against 51 

Fuel  regulation  in  steam  cars 153 

G 

Gas-engine  cycle 18 

Gaskets 47 

Gasoline,  grades  of 55 

Gasoline  and  air,  proper  mixture  of T50 

Gasoline  system 51 

Gasoline  tank 53 

Gears,  changing 91,  98,  171 

Generator  sets 141 

H 

Heating,  excessive 50 

High-speed  gear,  running  on 98 

Hills,  climbing  and  descending 130, 174 

Horse-power  and  weight  of  cars' 167 

Hyatt  roller  bearing 118 

I 

Ignition  systems 

dry-cell  and  jump-spark 63 

dynamos  for  charging  batteries 68 

make-and-break  system 75 

spark-plugs 73 

storage  batteries 77 

Inflation  of  tires 132 

K  * 

Knocking  of  engine 125 

Knuckle,  steering 12 

L 

Lack  of  speed  in  engine •     125 

Ladies'  carriages 182 

Lamps 179 

Landaulet . .  . : 172, 180 

Leaky  float- valves 62 

Levers 85,94, 172 

Limousine -  -170, 171, 180 

Loss  of  power  in  engine 123 

Lubricating  instructions 

daily  oil  and  grease Ill 


190  INDEX 


Lubricating  instructions  Page 

differential  gears 114 

oil  in  crank-case : 113 

transmission 113 

universal  joints 114 

wheels 114 

Lubrication 106 

Lubricators,  mechanically  operated 108 

M 

Magneto 70 

Make-and-break  system  of  ignition 75 

Mayo  cellular  radiator 46 

Metallic  constriction-band  clutches 85 

Mixture,  explosive,  of  gasoline  and  air 60 

Motor-cars 

body 5 

classification  of 179 

power  plant 4,    17 

running  gear 1 

selecting 155 

Motor-generator  sets  .1 141 

Motor  suspension 7 

Muffler  cut-out 83 

N 

Neck,  or  vertical  steering  spindle 12 

New  car,  what  to  do  to 119 

Noise 126 

O 

Oil  and  oiling 106 

Omnibus 177, 181 

Overheating  of  engine 50 

P 

Passenger  vehicles 179 

Pedals,  see  Levers 

Physician's  car 183 

Planetary  gears 91 

Planetary  transmission 85 

Power  plant  of  motor-car 4,    17 

gas-engine  cycle 18 

two-cycle  engines 20 

Power-transmission  devices 

clutches 85 

drive 99 

speed-changing  gears 91 

Price  of  a  car 158 

Pullman  . .  173, 180 


INDEX  191 


R  Page 

Racing  of  engine 125 

Radiators 45,  51 

Railway  coaches,  motor-driven    186 

Reach  rod 14 

Rear  axles 9 

Reo  tubular  radiator 46 

Retarding  spark 80 

Revolving-cylinder  motor 43 

Road  inspection 131 

Roadster : 167, 180 

Runabout 157, 158, 159, 179 

Running  gear  of  motor-car 1 

Running  on  high-speed  gear 98 

S 

Second-hand  cars 160, 163 

Selecting  a  motor-car 155 

Semi-elliptical  springs 

Shaft  drive 10,    99 

Single-  and  multiple-cylinder  engines 24 

Skidding 128 

Sliding  gears 92 

Smoke 128 

Spark-coil,  adjustment  of 66 

Spark-lever 79 

Spark-plugs 73 

Speed-changing  gears 

planetary 91 

sliding 92 

Speed-changing  levers  operating  sliding  gears 94 

Sportabout 168, 180 

Spring-hangers 7 

Springs 8 

Stage 180 

Stanhope 160, 179 

Steam-driven  automobiles 147 

Steaming  radiators < 51 

Steering  connections 13 

Steering  gear 14,  175 

Steering  knuckle 12 

Steering  yoke 12 

Storage  batteries  for  electric  vehicles 140, 143 

care  of 146 

charging 140,  143 

Storage  batteries  for  ignition  purposes 77 

Surrey 164, 180 

T 
Taxicab 169, 180 


192  INDEX 


Page 

Thermo-siphon  method  of  cooling 46 

Throttle-lever 80 

Timing  of  valves 34 

Timken  roller  bearing 117 

Tire  inflation 132 

Tires,  care  of 131 

inflation  of 132 

puncture  of 135 

to  remove  from  rim  and  replace. 134,  135 

weights  carried  by 133 

Tops  for  cars 177 

Touring  car -  .  165,  166, 180 

Trembler,  see  Vibrator 

Troubles  of  engine 123 

Trucks 181, 183, 186 

Two-cycle  engines 20 

Two-cylinder  opposed  engine .' 38 

U 

Universal  joints 101 

Uses  of  cars 182 

V 

Valve  setting 34 

Valves 

care  and  operation  of 32 

Van .....' 185,186 

Vertical  steering  spindle  or  neck 

Vibrator,  action  of 

Victoria 

Volt-ammeter 136 

W 

"Washing 131 

Water-cooled  engines 43 

care  of 

Water  regulation  in  steam  cars 

Water  system  in  steam  car 155 

Weak  batteries 125 

Weight  and  horse-power  of  cars 

Working  parts  of  engine 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 

Return  to  desk  from  which  borrowed. 

,    .    _,,-         .1-- i-.*  ^ot*»  «tamned  below. 
This  book  if 


DEC  17  1947 

3lDec'4£WM 


'49  f  e» 


7  Oct'49C: 


HOME  USE 

CIRCULATION  DEPARTMENT 
MAIN  LIBRARY 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 
1 -month  loans  may  be  renewed  by  calling  642-3405. 
6-month  loans  may  be  recharged  by  bringing  books 

to  Circulation  Desk. 
Renewals  and  recharges  may  be  made  4  days  prior 

to  due  date. 

ALL  BOOKS  ARE  SUBJECT  TO  RECAELj T{WYr)'SC 
AFTER  DATE  CHECKED  dlfTT  ' 

./.I    I)  7   Wl» 


AUTO  DISC  APR  U  '87 


APR  1.5198^ 


LD2 1—  A-40m-8/75 
(S7737L) 


General  Library 

University  of  California 

Berkeley 


TU   ^3414 


BERKELEY  LIBRARIES 


B003017S™ 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


